Opium Commission (1893)

The Opium Commission of 1893, officially known as the Royal Commission on Opium, was appointed by the British Government of India to investigate the production, trade, and consumption of opium within India and its export to other countries, especially China. The commission was set up in response to increasing international criticism and moral concern over Britain’s involvement in the opium trade, which had become both an ethical and diplomatic issue by the late 19th century.

Background

The opium trade had long been an integral part of British colonial policy in India. Since the late 18th century, the East India Company had monopolised the cultivation and export of opium, particularly from Bengal, Bihar, and parts of the United Provinces (modern Uttar Pradesh).

• The opium grown in India was exported mainly to China, where widespread addiction led to major social and economic disruption.
• China’s attempts to suppress opium imports resulted in the Opium Wars (1839–42 and 1856–60), after which Britain forced China to legalise the trade under unequal treaties.
• Despite growing condemnation, the opium trade remained a significant source of revenue for British India, contributing millions of pounds annually to the colonial treasury.

By the late 19th century, Christian missionaries, humanitarian organisations, and sections of the British public began campaigning against the opium trade, calling it morally indefensible and damaging to both Indian and Chinese societies.
This moral agitation led to the appointment of the Royal Commission on Opium in 1893 by the British Parliament to justify or reconsider the continuation of the opium trade.

Composition of the Commission

The Royal Commission on Opium (1893–1895) was constituted under the chairmanship of Sir Thomas Brassey, and consisted of seven members, representing both British and Indian interests.
Key Members Included:

• Sir Thomas Brassey – Chairman.
• Mr. H. A. S. Cotton – Civil servant known for his sympathetic views towards Indian concerns.
• General Sir Alexander Cunningham – Former Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.
• Mr. J. B. Fuller, Mr. B. B. Osmaston, and others.
• Two Indian members representing native opinion were also included, though their influence was limited.

The commission’s headquarters were in Calcutta (now Kolkata), and it conducted extensive inquiries across India and China between 1893 and 1895.

Objectives of the Commission

The commission was assigned the following tasks:

1. To examine the extent and conditions of opium cultivation and production in India.
2. To investigate the effects of opium consumption on the health and morals of the Indian population.
3. To evaluate the economic importance of opium to the Indian government and cultivators.
4. To assess the impact of Indian opium exports on foreign countries, particularly China.
5. To consider whether the trade should be regulated, restricted, or abolished.

Method of Inquiry

The commission adopted a comprehensive approach to gather information:

• Field Surveys and Hearings: Conducted public hearings in major opium-producing areas such as Patna, Benares (Varanasi), and Indore.
• Collection of Testimonies: Received over 700 depositions from government officials, medical experts, missionaries, traders, and cultivators.
• Medical Reports: Examined evidence on the physiological and social effects of opium consumption.
• Foreign Investigations: Sent representatives to China to study the effects of opium and public sentiment towards Indian imports.

Findings and Recommendations

After two years of inquiry, the commission published its report in 1895. The findings overwhelmingly defended the continuation of the opium trade, aligning with British imperial and economic interests.

Key Conclusions:

1. Opium Consumption in India:
   • The commission concluded that moderate use of opium in India was not harmful to health.
   • It claimed that addiction and abuse were rare and confined to a small section of the population.
2. Economic Importance:
   • The opium trade was deemed a vital source of revenue for the colonial government, contributing around ₹6–7 crore annually to the Indian exchequer.
   • The cultivation of opium provided livelihood to thousands of Indian peasants, especially in Bihar and the United Provinces.
3. Moral and Social Concerns:
   • The commission rejected the moral argument that Britain’s involvement in the opium trade was unethical, insisting that consumption in India was voluntary and culturally accepted.
4. Exports to China:
   • It argued that China’s own domestic opium cultivation had surpassed imports from India and that Indian opium was not responsible for the Chinese addiction crisis.
   • The report thus denied that Britain bore moral responsibility for China’s opium problem.
5. Policy Recommendation:
   • The commission advised no fundamental change in the existing system.
   • It suggested that regulation and supervision continue under government control to ensure “legitimate use.”

Reactions to the Report

The findings of the Royal Commission on Opium were highly controversial and provoked strong reactions both in India and abroad.

1. Official Reaction (British Government):
   • The British Government of India welcomed the report as justification for maintaining the status quo.
   • The opium revenue remained a crucial component of the colonial economy until the early 20th century.
2. Criticism by Reformers and Missionaries:
   • The commission was widely condemned as a whitewash, intended to defend imperial interests rather than address humanitarian concerns.
   • Missionaries, the Anglo-Indian press, and members of the British Parliament criticised its findings for ignoring evidence of social harm and addiction.
3. Indian Nationalist Response:
   • Indian leaders, including those in the Indian National Congress, denounced the opium trade as exploitative and immoral.
   • They saw it as an example of economic imperialism, where India was forced to serve British financial interests at the expense of its moral standing.

Subsequent Developments

Although the 1893 Commission justified the opium trade, public opinion against it continued to grow:

• Early 20th Century Reforms: By the early 1900s, mounting international pressure, particularly from the United States and China, led to renewed calls for curbing opium production and trade.
• International Opium Conferences:
  • The first International Opium Commission was held at Shanghai in 1909, where India’s role in the trade was discussed.
  • The Hague Opium Convention (1912) formalised international restrictions on opium trafficking.
• Gradual Decline of Trade: By the 1920s, opium exports from India had significantly declined, and by the 1930s, the trade was nearly abolished.

Historical Significance

1. Defence of Imperial Policy:
   • The 1893 Commission served as a political instrument to defend British economic interests in India and abroad.
2. Economic Dependence:
   • The report reflected the colonial government’s financial dependency on the opium trade for revenue.
3. Moral and Political Debate:
   • The controversy surrounding the commission highlighted the ethical contradictions of British imperialism, exposing the gap between Britain’s liberal ideals and its exploitative colonial practices.
4. Prelude to Global Regulation:
   • Though reactionary in nature, the commission indirectly stimulated global discussions on drug control, which culminated in early 20th-century international conventions.