Newspapers in British India

The history of newspapers in British India forms a significant chapter in the evolution of journalism, public opinion, and political consciousness in the Indian subcontinent. The press in colonial India emerged not only as a vehicle for information and education but also as a potent instrument for national awakening and resistance against British rule. Over the course of two centuries, newspapers developed from small commercial bulletins into powerful political tools that shaped India’s modern public sphere.

Origins of the Press in India

The introduction of the printing press by the Europeans in the sixteenth century laid the groundwork for the emergence of newspapers in India. The first printing press in India was established in Goa (1556) by the Portuguese, primarily for religious and missionary purposes. However, it was not until the late eighteenth century that newspapers began to appear under British influence.
The first newspaper in India was the Hicky’s Bengal Gazette, founded in 1780 by James Augustus Hicky in Calcutta (now Kolkata). Printed on a weekly basis, it was a four-page publication that contained news, advertisements, and sharp criticism of the East India Company’s officials. Though it was short-lived and suppressed by the colonial administration within two years, it marked the birth of journalism in India.
Following Hicky’s pioneering venture, several newspapers were founded by European settlers and British officials, primarily to cater to the interests of the expatriate community. These included:

• The Calcutta Gazette (1784)
• The Madras Courier (1785)
• The Bombay Herald (1789)
• The Bombay Courier (1790)

These early publications were mostly government-oriented, focusing on trade, official announcements, and European affairs. They seldom represented Indian voices or viewpoints.

Growth of Indian-Owned Newspapers

By the early nineteenth century, educated Indians began to recognise the potential of the press as a means of communication, reform, and political mobilisation. The emergence of Indian-owned newspapers marked a turning point in the evolution of the Indian press.
Some of the earliest Indian-run newspapers included:

• Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser (1816) by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, considered the first Indian-owned paper.
• Sambad Kaumudi (1821) founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, which became a powerful voice for social and religious reform.
• Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822), a Persian-language journal also edited by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, aimed at reaching a wider audience among Indian elites.
• Jame Jahan Numa (1822), the first Urdu newspaper, published from Calcutta.
• Bombay Samachar (1822), launched by Fardoonji Murazban, which continues to be published today, making it one of the oldest surviving newspapers in Asia.

These early Indian newspapers became platforms for social reform, education, and debate. They discussed issues such as widow remarriage, caste discrimination, education, and press freedom, signalling the dawn of a politically aware Indian intelligentsia.

Press and Colonial Control

As the influence of Indian newspapers grew, the British government began to perceive them as threats to its authority. The colonial administration sought to restrict press freedom through a series of legislative measures.
Notable among these were:

• Press Regulations of 1799 introduced by Governor-General Lord Wellesley, requiring government approval before publishing.
• Press Act of 1835 (Metcalfe Act) under Charles Metcalfe, which relaxed restrictions and earned him the title “Liberator of the Indian Press.”
• Vernacular Press Act of 1878, passed by Lord Lytton, which specifically targeted Indian-language newspapers for their criticism of British policies. This act empowered the government to confiscate printing presses and publications that promoted anti-British sentiments.

Despite these repressive measures, Indian journalists continued to find ways to voice dissent, often using satire, symbolism, and coded language to evade censorship.

Role in Social Reform and Education

Throughout the nineteenth century, newspapers became important instruments for social reform movements. Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Keshab Chandra Sen used journalism to promote education, women’s rights, and religious reform.
Publications such as The Hindu Patriot, Indian Mirror, and Amrita Bazar Patrika played a crucial role in raising awareness about issues like:

• The abolition of Sati.
• Promotion of female education.
• The campaign against child marriage and caste discrimination.

The vernacular press in particular expanded literacy and communication among India’s rural and semi-urban populations, helping to forge a sense of collective identity.

The Vernacular Press and Political Awakening

By the mid-nineteenth century, the vernacular press had become a major force in shaping political consciousness. Newspapers published in Indian languages such as Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Hindi, and Tamil reached broader audiences and voiced the concerns of common people.
Key vernacular newspapers included:

• Amrita Bazar Patrika (1868) – founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh in Calcutta, it evolved from a Bengali weekly into a powerful English-language daily that fiercely criticised British rule.
• Kesari (1881) – founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Marathi, it became a mouthpiece of nationalist thought and was instrumental in spreading political awareness.
• Mahratta (1881) – Tilak’s English-language paper complementing Kesari, aimed at intellectuals and reformers.
• The Hindu (1878) – started by a group of young lawyers in Madras, it remains one of India’s most respected newspapers.
• Bangadarshan, Bharat Mihir, and Sudharak – other influential regional papers that contributed to the intellectual climate of the time.

These newspapers transformed the press into a nationalist platform, articulating Indian grievances and aspirations.

Newspapers and the National Movement

By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Indian press had become inseparable from the freedom struggle. Newspapers acted as both chroniclers and participants in the movement for independence.
Prominent nationalist newspapers and editors included:

• The Bengalee – edited by Surendranath Banerjee, advocating constitutional reforms.
• Young India and Harijan – founded by Mahatma Gandhi, promoting non-violence and swaraj.
• The Indian Opinion – established by Gandhi in South Africa in 1903, later inspiring similar ventures in India.
• The Tribune (1881, Lahore) – supporting liberal and nationalist causes in northern India.
• Bombay Chronicle – edited by Pherozeshah Mehta, articulating nationalist opinion in western India.
• New India – founded by Annie Besant, advocating Home Rule and political rights.
• The Hindu, Kesari, and Amrita Bazar Patrika – continued to play major roles in mobilising public opinion.

During the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements, newspapers served as vital tools for mass communication and mobilisation. Many editors were imprisoned, presses seized, and publications banned, yet the nationalist press persisted in uniting diverse regions under the banner of freedom.

Post-1900 Developments and the Legacy

The early twentieth century witnessed the rise of several regional and English-language newspapers that reflected India’s plural identity. By the 1930s and 1940s, the Indian press had evolved into a powerful institution that combined journalism, activism, and education.
Even under stringent British censorship during World War II, Indian newspapers continued to campaign for political rights and social justice.
By the time of independence in 1947, the press had become an established and indispensable part of Indian public life.