Mozambique

The Republic of Mozambique, located in southeastern Africa, borders six countries—Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Eswatini, and South Africa—and stretches along 2,470 kilometres of the Indian Ocean coast facing the Mozambique Channel. Renowned for its natural beauty and mineral wealth, the nation’s history is defined by centuries of Indian Ocean trade, Portuguese colonisation, a protracted war for independence, and a long civil conflict. Since adopting multi-party democracy in the 1990s, Mozambique has pursued economic reform and political stability, emerging as a country of both vast potential and enduring developmental challenges.

Historical Background

Mozambique’s territory has for millennia served as a crossroads between Africa and the wider Indian Ocean world. By the first millennium CE, its northern and central coasts were integrated into the maritime trade networks linking Somalia, Arabia, Persia, India, and East Africa. Arab Muslim traders established trading towns along the coast, which thrived on commerce in gold, ivory, and slaves.
The arrival of the Portuguese in the early 16th century introduced European colonial rule, initially limited to coastal forts and trading posts. By the 17th century, Portugal extended control inland through prazo (land-grant) systems and missionary activity. For nearly five centuries, Mozambique remained a Portuguese colony, integral to Lisbon’s Indian Ocean ambitions.
The struggle for independence began in 1962 with the formation of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). After a decade of guerrilla warfare, independence was achieved on 25 June 1975. The new government, under Samora Machel, adopted a Marxist-Leninist orientation, nationalising industries and collectivising agriculture.
However, post-independence optimism was soon shattered by a civil war (1977–1992) between FRELIMO and the Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO), which was supported at different times by Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa. The conflict caused immense destruction—claiming hundreds of thousands of lives and displacing millions.
FRELIMO’s abandonment of Marxism in 1989, coupled with the 1990 constitution that introduced multi-party democracy and market reforms, led to the General Peace Agreement (1992), brokered with UN assistance. The subsequent elections in 1994 marked a peaceful democratic transition.
Since then, Mozambique has been governed primarily by FRELIMO under successive presidents: Joaquim Chissano (1986–2004), Armando Guebuza (2005–2015), and Filipe Nyusi (2015–2025). In 2024, Daniel Francisco Chapo succeeded Nyusi as president. Despite economic recovery and infrastructure rebuilding, challenges persist from intermittent RENAMO unrest and, since 2017, an ISIS-affiliated insurgency in Cabo Delgado Province. Regional support from Rwanda and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) has been crucial in stabilising the north.

Geography and Environment

Mozambique covers 799,380 sq km, ranking 36th globally in area. It is bordered by Malawi, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with a 4,783 km land boundary and an extensive Indian Ocean coastline.
Topography: The country features coastal lowlands, central uplands, and western highlands, with Monte Binga (2,436 m) as the highest peak. The Zambezi River is the dominant waterway, crucial for transport and hydropower.
Climate: Tropical and subtropical, governed by the Indian Ocean monsoon system. Mozambique is highly prone to cyclones, flooding, and droughts, especially in central and southern regions.
Natural resources: Mozambique possesses vast deposits of coal, titanium, natural gas, graphite, tantalum, and hydropower potential. Forests cover 46% of the territory, while 52.7% is agricultural land—though only 7.2% is arable.
Environmental challenges include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, and water pollution from mining. The country is a signatory to major international environmental treaties, including the Paris Agreement and conventions on Biodiversity and Endangered Species.

People and Society

Mozambique’s population reached 33.35 million (2024), making it the 46th most populous nation. With an annual growth rate of 2.54%, it remains among Africa’s fastest-growing populations. The median age is 17.3 years, underscoring a youthful demographic profile.
Ethnic composition:

• African (Makhuwa, Tsonga, Lomwe, Sena): 99%
• Minority groups: Mestizo, European, Indian, and Chinese communities

Languages: Portuguese (official) is widely used in administration and education, but local Bantu languages such as Makhuwa, Tsonga, Nyanja, and Sena dominate daily communication.
Religion: Roman Catholic (27%), Muslim (19%), Zionist Christian (16%), Evangelical/Pentecostal (15%), and others or unaffiliated make up the remainder.
Urbanisation: 38.8%, with major cities including Matola (1.85 million), Maputo (1.16 million), and Nampula (969,000).
Social indicators:

• Life expectancy: 58.3 years
• Infant mortality: 58 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 4.66 children per woman
• Access to clean water: 63%
• Sanitation coverage: 42%
• Health expenditure: 9.1% of GDP

Education:

• Literacy: 60% (male 72%, female 49%)
• Education spending: 6% of GDP
• School life expectancy: 10 years
• Child marriage: 53% of women married before 18

Despite progress in education and health, rural poverty and gender inequality remain severe.

Government and Political Structure

Official name: República de MoçambiqueSystem: Presidential republicConstitution: 2004Capital: Maputo

• President: Daniel Francisco Chapo (since 2024)
• Prime Minister: Maria Benvinda Delfina Levi
• Legislature: Unicameral Assembly of the Republic (Assembleia da República) – 250 members elected by proportional representation
  • FRELIMO: 171 seats
  • PODEMOS: 43 seats
  • RENAMO: 28 seats
• Judiciary: Supreme Court, Constitutional Council, and lower courts

Women’s representation: 39% of parliamentarians
Mozambique’s legal system blends Portuguese civil law with customary norms. The country is unitary, comprising 10 provinces and the capital Maputo, which holds special administrative status.
Foreign policy is active and multilateral. Mozambique is a member of the African Union (AU), SADC, CPLP, United Nations, and WTO. It maintains strong diplomatic ties with India, China, South Africa, and the United States.

Economy

Mozambique’s economy is low-income and agrarian-based, yet increasingly reliant on its extractive industries and natural gas sector.
Key indicators (2024):

• GDP: $22.4 billion (nominal)
• GDP per capita (PPP): $1,500
• Growth: 1.9%
• Inflation: 4.1%
• Unemployment: 3.6%
• Public debt: 76.6% of GDP
• Poverty rate: 62.8%
• Gini index: 50.3 (high inequality)

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 26.3%
• Industry: 24.6%
• Services: 38.4%

Exports ($9.36 billion): coal, natural gas, aluminium, gold, gemstonesImports ($10.49 billion): petroleum, machinery, iron, palm oilMain partners: India, China, South Africa, UAE
Foreign reserves: $3.84 billionExternal debt: $8.27 billion
Mozambique benefits from substantial natural gas discoveries in Cabo Delgado, positioning it as a future liquefied natural gas (LNG) exporter, though insurgency has delayed production.

Energy and Infrastructure

Total installed power capacity is 2.86 million kW, primarily hydroelectric (82.7%), with fossil fuels (16.3%) supplementing the grid. The Cahora Bassa Dam on the Zambezi River is a cornerstone of energy generation.
Electrification: 33% overall (urban 79%, rural 5%)Coal production: 10.6 million tonnes (2023)Natural gas reserves: 2.8 trillion cubic metres
Transport network:

• Airports: 92
• Ports: 11 (Maputo, Beira, Nacala, Inhambane)
• Railways: 4,787 km connecting inland countries to seaports

Telecommunications remain underdeveloped, with mobile penetration (42 per 100) and internet access (20%) reflecting limited digital reach.

Defence and Security

The Armed Forces for the Defence of Mozambique (FADM) include the Army, Navy, and Air Force, supported by the National Police (PRM) and Border Security Forces. Personnel total approximately 12,000, and military spending equals 2% of GDP.
Since 2017, the Cabo Delgado insurgency, aligned with ISIS, has challenged state authority in the north. By 2024, coordinated operations with Rwandan and SADC forces achieved significant territorial recovery.

Culture, Identity, and Heritage

Mozambique’s cultural landscape blends African, Arab, and Portuguese influences, visible in architecture, language, and music. The national flag (adopted 1983), featuring green, black, yellow, red, and a rifle, hoe, and book emblem, symbolises the values of defence, labour, and education. The national anthem, “Pátria Amada” (“Lovely Fatherland”), expresses unity and patriotism.