Mexico

Mexico, officially the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos), is a vast and diverse nation located in North America, bordered by the United States, Belize, Guatemala, the Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico. As the cradle of some of the world’s most sophisticated pre-Columbian civilisations—the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Aztec—and later the core of Spanish colonial authority in the Americas, Mexico has played a central role in shaping the cultural and political landscape of the Western Hemisphere. Today, it is a federal presidential republic, the second-largest economy in Latin America, and a leading regional power with a complex blend of tradition, modernity, and inequality.

Historical Background

Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory of modern Mexico was home to numerous Indigenous civilisations renowned for their advanced architecture, agriculture, astronomy, and statecraft. The Olmecs, regarded as Mesoamerica’s “mother culture,” laid early cultural foundations. The Maya developed a sophisticated writing system and calendar, while the Aztecs (Mexica) established a powerful empire centred on Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City).
Spanish conquest began in 1519 under Hernán Cortés, culminating in the defeat of the Aztec Empire in 1521 and the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Over nearly three centuries, colonial Mexico became a vital component of the Spanish Empire, with Mexico City emerging as the centre of administration, culture, and trade in the Americas.
The struggle for independence commenced in 1810, led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and continued by José María Morelos and Agustín de Iturbide, culminating in independence in 1821. The nineteenth century was turbulent—marked by invasions (including the loss of nearly half its territory to the United States in 1848), internal civil wars, and the short-lived French-imposed monarchy of Emperor Maximilian I (1864–1867).
The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) transformed the nation’s social and political structures. Rooted in opposition to dictatorship and inequality, it produced enduring reforms, culminating in the Constitution of 1917, which established land redistribution, labour rights, and secular governance.
For most of the twentieth century, Mexico was dominated by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which maintained a stable but semi-authoritarian rule for 71 years (1929–2000). The election of Vicente Fox (PAN) in 2000 marked the country’s democratic transition. Subsequent administrations alternated between the PAN, PRI, and MORENA, reflecting political pluralism.
In 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) of MORENA won a landslide victory on a platform of social welfare and anti-corruption. His successor, Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo, elected in 2024, became Mexico’s first female president, continuing MORENA’s progressive agenda while confronting persistent issues of organised crime, corruption, and economic disparity.

Geography and Environment

Located between 14° and 33° N latitude, Mexico covers 1,964,375 square kilometres, ranking as the 15th largest country globally. It features extensive coastlines totalling 9,330 km, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea to the east.
Mexico’s terrain is diverse: mountain ranges (Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental) flank the Mexican Plateau, while volcanic peaks such as Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m) and Popocatépetl dominate the landscape. The Yucatán Peninsula and Baja California add to its geographic variety.
Climate varies from tropical in the south to arid in the north. Natural resources include petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, natural gas, and timber. However, environmental challenges are acute, including:

• Urban air and water pollution (especially in Mexico City)
• Deforestation and soil erosion
• Groundwater depletion causing land subsidence
• River and coastal contamination
• Freshwater shortages in northern and southeastern regions

Mexico is a signatory to major international environmental frameworks, including the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

People and Society

As of 2024, Mexico’s population reached 130.7 million, ranking 10th globally. The urbanisation rate stands at 81.6%, with the Mexico City Metropolitan Area housing approximately 22.3 million inhabitants. The median age is 30.8 years, and life expectancy averages 74.6 years.
Ethnic composition reflects centuries of cultural blending:

• Mestizo (mixed Indigenous–Spanish): 62%
• Predominantly Indigenous: 21%
• Indigenous only: 7%
• European or other descent: 10%

Mexico officially recognises 68 Indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, Maya, Zapotec, and Mixtec, alongside Spanish, the national language.
Religion: Approximately 78% Roman Catholic, 11% Protestant, and 10% unaffiliated. While Catholicism remains culturally dominant, religious diversity is increasing.
Social indicators:

• Literacy rate: 95%
• Infant mortality: 12.1 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 1.79 children per woman
• Health expenditure: 6.1% of GDP
• Education expenditure: 4.2% of GDP
• Access to safe water and sanitation: 99.7%

Despite progress, inequalities persist—especially in southern states such as Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Guerrero, where poverty and limited access to healthcare and education remain endemic.

Government and Politics

Mexico is a federal presidential republic governed under the Constitution of 1917, one of the world’s oldest continuously effective charters.

• President: Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo (since October 2024)
• Capital: Mexico City (Ciudad de México)
• Legislature: Bicameral Congress of the Union
  • Chamber of Deputies: 500 members (3-year terms)
  • Senate: 128 members (6-year terms)
• Judiciary: Supreme Court of Justice (SCJN) with 12 justices (15-year terms)

The 2024 election reaffirmed MORENA’s dominance, with Sheinbaum securing 59.4% of the vote. The main political forces include:

• MORENA (Movement for National Regeneration)
• PAN (National Action Party)
• PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party)
• PVEM, PT, and MC (smaller parties)

Gender equality has advanced significantly, with women occupying 50% of congressional seats, making Mexico a leader in female political representation.

Economy

Mexico possesses an upper-middle-income, export-oriented economy, closely integrated with that of the United States through the US–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA). It is the 15th-largest economy globally and a major manufacturing and energy hub.
Key economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (nominal): $1.85 trillion
• GDP (PPP): $2.88 trillion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $22,000
• Real growth: 1.5%
• Inflation: 4.7%
• Unemployment: 2.8%
• Public debt: 45% of GDP

Sectoral structure:

• Agriculture: 3.8% – maize, sugarcane, tomatoes, avocados, livestock
• Industry: 31.6% – automobiles, mining, petrochemicals, and steel
• Services: 58.2% – finance, tourism, and communications

Mexico ranks among the world’s top automobile producers and benefits from nearshoring trends that relocate manufacturing from Asia to North America. However, structural inequalities (Gini 43.5), informal employment, and corruption constrain equitable growth.
Trade and investment:

• Main exports: vehicles, crude oil, computers, electronics, machinery
• Main markets: USA (76%), Canada (5%), China (2%)
• Imports: refined petroleum, machinery, electronics, vehicle parts
• Remittances: 3.7% of GDP—an essential income source for rural families

Mexico’s trade surplus with the United States underpins its economy but increases dependence on American consumption cycles.

Energy and Infrastructure

Energy production is dominated by fossil fuels (≈80%), primarily managed by PEMEX (Petróleos Mexicanos), the state-owned oil company. The country has proven petroleum reserves of 5.8 billion barrels and produces 33 billion cubic metres of natural gas annually, though domestic output has declined.
Electricity generation:

• Installed capacity: 105.6 million kW
• Nuclear power: 4.9% of national output
• Renewable sources (solar, wind, hydro): expanding but secondary

Mexico’s transport infrastructure is well developed, with over 1,500 airports (4th globally), extensive road networks, and revived investment in rail systems such as the Maya Train.

Military and Security

Mexico’s armed forces comprise the Army, Navy, Air Force, and National Guard, with approximately 260,000 active personnel and 110,000 in the National Guard. Defence spending stands at 0.9% of GDP.
The military’s internal role has expanded significantly since the early 2000s, particularly in anti-narcotics and counter-crime operations. Major criminal organisations, including the Sinaloa Cartel, Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), and Gulf Cartel, remain major sources of violence and instability. Since 2007, the drug war has claimed tens of thousands of lives and generated widespread human rights concerns.
Efforts to reform policing and judicial systems continue, but corruption, impunity, and social inequality remain persistent challenges.

Culture and National Identity

Mexico’s national identity is a synthesis of Indigenous, Spanish, and mestizo heritage, enriched by African and Asian influences through centuries of migration and trade. The country’s art, literature, and cuisine are internationally acclaimed.
Cuisine, recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, is based on maize, beans, and chillies, with iconic dishes such as tacos, tamales, and mole poblano. Music and dance range from mariachi and ranchera to regional folk traditions.