Maritime History of India

The maritime history of India encompasses a long and rich tradition of seafaring, trade, naval power, and cultural exchange extending from the Indus Valley Civilisation to modern times. Surrounded on three sides by water, India’s geographic position has historically given it a significant maritime advantage, facilitating commercial and cultural connections across Asia, Africa, and Europe. Maritime activities not only shaped India’s economy and politics but also contributed to the spread of Indian culture, religion, and science throughout the Indian Ocean world.

Early Maritime Beginnings

India’s maritime activities trace back to the 3rd millennium BCE, during the era of the Indus Valley Civilisation, when ports such as Lothal (near present-day Mangrol, Gujarat) served as major trade centres. Archaeological evidence suggests that Lothal possessed the world’s first known tidal dock, constructed around 2300 BCE, used for docking ships engaged in trade with Mesopotamia. Goods such as beads, spices, textiles, and metals were exported in exchange for silver, tin, and other commodities.
References from Roman and Greek sources highlight extensive trade between India and the West. By the time of Emperor Augustus, nearly 120 ships sailed annually between Myos Hormos (Egypt) and Indian ports. Indian spices, gems, and textiles became highly sought-after commodities in the Greco-Roman world, and Indian traders were known to have settled in Alexandria.

Mauryan and Classical Period Developments

The rise of the Mauryan Empire (324–187 BCE) marked a significant stage in the institutionalisation of maritime administration. Chandragupta Maurya, guided by Kautilya (Chanakya), established a Department of Waterways and Navigation, headed by the Navadhyaksha (Superintendent of Ships). This department regulated shipbuilding, sea trade, and port operations. Kautilya’s Arthashastra dedicated a chapter to maritime affairs, underlining the economic and strategic importance of sea trade.
Mauryan trade extended from Arabia and Persia in the west to Burma and Southeast Asia in the east. Pepper, spices, textiles, and precious stones were the principal exports, while imports included horses, wine, and metals. The discovery of monsoon winds further enhanced the regularity and safety of maritime voyages across the Indian Ocean.

Maritime Expansion in the South – The Cholas and Beyond

The southern dynasties, particularly the Cholas, played a defining role in strengthening India’s naval and maritime power. Between the 10th and 13th centuries, under kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the Chola navy emerged as one of the most formidable in Asia. Their fleets conducted successful expeditions to Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Burma, and Sumatra, and subdued pirate activities in Southeast Asian waters.
Ports such as Muziris, Poduca, and Sopatma became key centres for foreign trade. The Cholas developed advanced harbours, shipyards, and navigation systems, complete with lighthouses and repair facilities. Their maritime ventures extended cultural influence through the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Indian art across Southeast Asia, where Indianised kingdoms such as Srivijaya and Majapahit thrived.

Medieval Maritime Activity and Foreign Encounters

During the Sultanate period (13th–16th centuries), India continued to be a vital node in international maritime trade. Goods such as indigo, sugar, ivory, sandalwood, silk, and spices were exported from ports like Cambay, Calicut, and Bengal, while imports included horses, gold, and luxury textiles. Arab traders served as intermediaries, shipping Indian goods through Red Sea and Mediterranean ports to Europe.
However, the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498, led by Vasco da Gama, marked a turning point. On the orders of King Manuel I of Portugal, da Gama’s fleet rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Calicut (Kozhikode). This voyage initiated direct European contact with India’s maritime trade, leading to the establishment of the Portuguese Empire in Asia, one of the earliest colonial powers driven by the spice trade.
The Portuguese introduced a system of trade licences, undermining Indian merchants and imposing control over coastal commerce. Yet, Indian shipbuilding remained competitive, with vessels built from Indian teak—stronger than European oak—remaining legendary for their quality.

Maritime Traditions under Later Dynasties

Successive dynasties such as the Satavahanas, Pallavas, and Cheras also played prominent roles in India’s maritime development, maintaining trade with Southeast Asia and the Roman Empire. The Maratha Navy, under Chhatrapati Shivaji Bhonsle and Admiral Kanhoji Angre, revived maritime strength in the 17th and 18th centuries, defending the western coast from Portuguese, Dutch, and British incursions.
The Bombay Dock, completed in 1735, stands as a testament to India’s continued shipbuilding expertise; it remains in use today.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands also featured prominently in India’s maritime history. Recognised for their strategic location, they served as waypoints for ancient sea voyages and later became a British naval outpost and penal colony following the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny.

Decline and British Domination

Despite a long maritime tradition, India’s naval power declined after the advent of European colonial powers. The British East India Company, which began as a trading enterprise in the early 17th century, gained full control of maritime trade by the 19th century. Indian-built ships continued to be constructed for the Royal Navy, though native shipbuilding industries gradually weakened under British economic policies.
By the time of independence in 1947, the Indian Navy inherited 33 vessels and 538 officers, charged with safeguarding a coastline of 7,500 kilometres and 1,280 islands.

Modern Maritime Developments

Post-independence, India rebuilt its maritime strength through modernisation and self-reliance. The navy expanded significantly, taking part in key operations such as:

• Integration of Junagadh (1948) and Liberation of Goa (1961).
• Indo-Pak wars of 1965 and 1971, where naval blockades played decisive roles.
• Operation Cactus (1988) in Sri Lanka and peacekeeping missions under the United Nations.
• Repatriation of Indian citizens during the Gulf War (1990–91).

The Indian Coast Guard, established under the Coast Guard Act of 1978, has since undertaken vital missions in anti-smuggling, environmental protection, and maritime security.
India’s naval indigenisation programme has yielded modern destroyers, frigates, submarines, and aircraft carriers, strengthening its maritime autonomy. The Kargil conflict (1999) brought renewed international recognition to India’s naval capabilities.

Maritime Trade and Modern Ports

Modern India maintains an extensive maritime network of major and minor ports, vital for trade and national income. Prominent ports include Mumbai, Kandla, Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Cochin, Paradip, Mormugao, Ennore, and Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva). These serve as hubs for global commerce, energy supply, and maritime logistics.
India’s location across the major Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs) in the Indian Ocean continues to provide strategic and economic advantages, ensuring its prominence in international trade and regional security.

Legacy and Significance

The Indian maritime tradition, rooted in the seafaring culture of the Harappans and enriched through millennia of trade, innovation, and naval enterprise, stands as one of the world’s oldest and most continuous maritime legacies.