Mali

Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a vast, landlocked nation in West Africa that derives its name and identity from the Mali Empire (13th–16th centuries)—one of Africa’s greatest precolonial civilisations. Renowned for its gold trade, scholarship, and Islamic architecture, the medieval empire reached its height under Mansa Musa, whose legendary wealth and pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 symbolised West Africa’s economic and cultural prominence. Today, modern Mali’s cultural and historical legacy endures in ancient centres such as Timbuktu and Djenné, even as the nation grapples with poverty, insecurity, and political turbulence.

Historical Background

The Mali Empire dominated the western Sahel between the 13th and 16th centuries, controlling vital trans-Saharan trade routes that linked North Africa with sub-Saharan goldfields. Under Mansa Musa’s reign, the empire flourished as a centre of Islamic learning and architecture, particularly in Timbuktu, which became synonymous with scholarship, trade, and spirituality. Following its decline, the Songhai Empire rose to prominence in the 15th century before falling to Moroccan invasion in 1591, leading to the region’s fragmentation into smaller kingdoms and sultanates.
French colonisation began in the 1890s, with the creation of French Sudan, which became part of French West Africa. Following decades of colonial rule administered from Bamako, independence was achieved in 1960, initially as part of the Mali Federation with Senegal. After the federation’s dissolution, the Republic of Mali was proclaimed under President Modibo Keita, whose socialist policies and centralised governance were ended by a 1968 military coup led by Moussa Traoré, inaugurating over two decades of authoritarian rule.
In 1991, widespread protests toppled Traoré, paving the way for a democratic transition. The 1992 Constitution established a multiparty system, with Alpha Oumar Konaré and later Amadou Toumani Touré (ATT) overseeing relatively stable governance until 2012, when a Tuareg rebellion, fuelled by fighters returning from Libya, triggered a military coup and the loss of northern Mali to Islamist and separatist forces.
International intervention—primarily French and African—helped restore partial control in 2013, but insecurity persisted. Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta (IBK), elected in 2013 and re-elected in 2018, was overthrown in 2020 amid rising discontent over corruption and instability. Colonel Assimi Goïta and the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) assumed power, staging a second coup in 2021 to consolidate military authority.
Under Goïta’s leadership, Mali has pursued a strategic realignment, distancing itself from traditional Western allies and strengthening partnerships with Russia. The country withdrew from ECOWAS in 2024, and elections originally planned for that year were postponed indefinitely, solidifying military dominance in governance and heightening international isolation.

Geography and Environment

Covering 1,240,192 square kilometres, Mali is Africa’s eighth-largest country, slightly smaller than Angola and nearly twice the size of Texas (USA). It borders Algeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Senegal, and Mauritania.
The Niger River, Mali’s lifeline, flows through the southern and central regions, providing irrigation, transport, and hydropower potential in an otherwise arid to semi-arid environment.
Major ecological zones:

• Southern Sudanese zone: Fertile and agriculturally productive.
• Central Sahelian zone: Semi-arid savanna and steppe.
• Northern Saharan zone: Desert terrain of sand plains and rocky plateaus.
• Climate: Subtropical to arid, with a hot dry season (February–June), rainy season (June–November), and cool dry period (November–February).
• Highest elevation: Hombori Tondo (1,155 m).
• Natural resources: Gold, phosphates, limestone, salt, and uranium.
• Land use: 35.5% agricultural, 10.9% forest (2022).

Over 90% of Mali’s population resides in the southern half along the Niger River, where arable land is concentrated. Environmental degradation, including desertification, deforestation, and soil erosion, continues to threaten livelihoods. Mali actively participates in international environmental conventions such as the Paris Climate Agreement and the Convention to Combat Desertification.

People and Society

Mali’s population (2024) stands at 21.99 million, growing rapidly at 2.9% annually—among the highest in the world. The median age of 16.4 years underscores a youthful demographic, while urbanisation is expanding (46.2% in 2023).
Ethnic composition:

• Bambara – 33.3%
• Fulani (Peul) – 13.3%
• Sarakole/Soninke – 9.8%
• Senufo/Manianka – 9.6%
• Malinke – 8.8%
• Dogon – 8.7%
• Songhai – 5.9%
• Tuareg and Bella – 1.7%

Languages: French (official), Bambara (widely spoken), Fulfulde, Soninke, Dogon, and Tamasheq.
Religion: Islam dominates (93.9%), alongside Christian (2.8%) and traditional animist (0.7%) minorities.
Health and Education Indicators:

• Life expectancy: 63.2 years
• Fertility rate: 5.35 children per woman
• Infant mortality: 57.4 per 1,000 live births
• Maternal mortality: 367 per 100,000 live births
• Physician density: 0.19 per 1,000 people
• Access to safe water: 83.6%
• Access to sanitation: 67.2%
• Literacy rate: 35% (men 46%, women 26%)
• Education expenditure: 4.2% of GDP

Despite progress in healthcare and infrastructure, poverty, low literacy, and child marriage (53.7% before age 18) remain pervasive. School life expectancy averages only seven years, reflecting limited access and high dropout rates, particularly among girls.

Government and Politics

• Official name: Republic of Mali (République du Mali)
• System: Semi-presidential republic under military transition
• Capital: Bamako

The 2023 Constitution, adopted by referendum, reinforced presidential powers and formalised military-led governance. The Transitional National Council (CNT), comprising 147 appointed members, functions as the interim legislature.

• Transition President: Colonel Assimi Goïta (since June 2021)
• Prime Minister: Abdoulaye Maïga (since November 2024)
• Judiciary: Supreme Court and Constitutional Court based on French civil law traditions
• Voting age: 18 years

Mali’s political climate remains dominated by the military, with limited prospects for a civilian transition. The 2024 withdrawal from ECOWAS marked a decisive shift toward regional isolation and closer strategic alignment with Russia and neighbouring Sahel states.

Economy

Mali’s economy is low-income, agrarian, and gold-dependent, vulnerable to climate shocks, conflict, and infrastructure deficits. Agriculture and mining drive most growth, though instability has hindered diversification.

• GDP (PPP, 2024): $71.25 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $2,900
• Real GDP growth: 5% (2024)
• Inflation: 3.2%
• Poverty rate: 44.6%
• Gini index: 35.7

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 33.4% (millet, sorghum, rice, cotton, livestock)
• Industry: 22.7% (food processing, mining, construction)
• Services: 36.7%

Trade profile (2024):

• Exports: $6.13 billion — gold (over 70%), cotton, oilseeds
• Main partners: UAE, Switzerland, Australia, China, Uganda
• Imports: $8.07 billion — refined petroleum, cement, machinery, consumer goods
• Main suppliers: Côte d’Ivoire (25%), Senegal (19%), China (12%)
• External debt: $4.1 billion
• Remittances: 4.2% of GDP

While macroeconomic stability has improved slightly, the informal sector dominates employment, and foreign aid remains crucial. Security concerns and sanctions have further constrained investment and trade.

Energy and Infrastructure

Electricity access remains limited at 53%, with significant urban-rural disparity (urban 99.7%, rural 18.3%). Installed capacity totals 1.22 million kW, primarily derived from hydropower (37.6%), fossil fuels (57.3%), and solar (3.5%).
Hydroelectric development along the Niger River offers significant potential, though underinvestment and recurrent blackouts impede industrial growth.

• Mobile subscriptions: 25.9 million (114 per 100 inhabitants)
• Internet users: 35% of the population
• Railways: 593 km (Bamako–Dakar line)
• Airports: 30 (with Bamako–Senou as the primary international hub)

Infrastructure disparities between southern and northern Mali reflect long-standing development inequalities.

Defence and Security

The Malian Armed Forces (FAMa) comprise approximately 35,000–40,000 personnel, including the Army, Air Force, National Guard, and Gendarmerie. Military expenditure accounts for 4.3% of GDP (2024).
Mali faces ongoing conflict with jihadist groups linked to al-Qaida (JNIM) and ISIS-Greater Sahara (ISIS-GS), as well as separatist militias. Nearly half of Mali’s territory remains outside full state control.
Following the withdrawal of the UN (MINUSMA) and EU missions (2023–2024), Mali intensified military cooperation with Russia, including deployments of Russian advisors and equipment. In 2024, Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso formed a joint 5,000-troop Sahel defence force to coordinate counterterrorism operations.

Culture, Heritage, and National Identity

Mali’s national identity draws on a proud heritage of empire, trade, and scholarship. The green, yellow, and red tricolour flag symbolises hope, purity, and sacrifice, embodying Pan-African unity. The national anthem, “Le Mali” (1962), celebrates liberty and national pride.