Land Measurements by Todar Mal

Raja Todar Mal (c. 1500–1589) was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) in the court of the Mughal Emperor Akbar and served as his Finance Minister (Diwan-i-Ashraf). He is best known for introducing a systematic and standardised revenue and land measurement system that became one of the most significant administrative achievements of the Mughal Empire. His reforms in land assessment, measurement, and taxation brought stability, efficiency, and uniformity to the agrarian administration of India.

Background and Need for Reform

Before Todar Mal’s reforms, land revenue collection under the Delhi Sultanate and early Mughals was inconsistent and often arbitrary. Different regions used varying systems of measurement, local units, and tax rates. Farmers frequently suffered under excessive taxation and corrupt revenue officials, while the empire faced unstable revenues due to poor record-keeping.
Recognising the need for a fair and systematic approach, Akbar entrusted Todar Mal with the task of reforming the revenue administration. The new system, developed between 1570 and 1580, aimed to create uniformity, accountability, and justice in land revenue collection, ensuring both state prosperity and peasant welfare.

The Zabti System (Dahsala System)

Todar Mal’s land revenue system, popularly known as the Zabti or Dahsala system, became the foundation of Mughal revenue administration. The term Dahsala refers to the ten-year average yield method used for revenue assessment.
Key features of this system included:

1. Systematic Survey and Measurement: Accurate measurement of agricultural land was undertaken using standard units and scientific methods.
2. Classification of Land: The measured land was categorised according to fertility and productivity.
3. Standardisation of Revenue Rates: Average produce and prices of crops were recorded over ten years, and a standard tax rate was fixed, generally one-third of the average produce value.
4. Written Records: Detailed registers were maintained to ensure transparency and prevent manipulation by revenue officials.

This system ensured predictability and fairness in taxation, benefiting both the imperial treasury and cultivators.

Land Measurement Methods Introduced by Todar Mal

The foundation of Todar Mal’s reform lay in accurate land measurement. His system was based on scientific and uniform methods that replaced older, irregular regional practices.

1. Introduction of Standard Units:
   • The basic unit of measurement was the Ilahi Gaz, a measuring rod introduced during Akbar’s reign.
   • One Ilahi Gaz was equivalent to about 33 inches or 82.5 centimetres, slightly longer than the old Delhi Gaz.
   • This standardisation ensured consistency across provinces, making land revenue comparable throughout the empire.
2. Use of Measuring Chain (Jarib):
   • Land was measured with a bamboo chain (Jarib), which was made by connecting bamboo pieces with iron rings.
   • Each chain represented a certain number of Ilahi Gaz (usually 100).
   • The use of the chain reduced errors that occurred when measuring with ropes or cords, which tended to shrink or expand with weather changes.
3. Classification of Land Types: Todar Mal classified agricultural land into three main categories based on cultivation quality and regularity:
   • Polaj: Land cultivated every year and yielding regular crops without needing to lie fallow.
   • Parauti: Land left fallow for a short period to regain fertility but fit for cultivation after a year or two.
   • Chachar: Land left fallow for 3–4 years and requiring rehabilitation before use.
   • Banjar: Uncultivable or waste land, not used for agriculture.

   This classification helped determine revenue demand and guided agricultural planning.

4. Recording and Mapping (Patta and Qabuliyat):
   • Each cultivator received a Patta, a document specifying the area, type, and revenue demand on his land.
   • The cultivator signed a Qabuliyat, an agreement acknowledging his acceptance of the tax assessment.
   • This written documentation strengthened legal accountability and reduced exploitation.
5. Survey and Settlement Registers:
   • Local officials known as Amins, Qanungos, and Patwaris were responsible for conducting surveys, maintaining maps, and updating land records.
   • The data collected was compiled into detailed imperial registers known as Dastur-ul-Amal (manual of rules) and Bahi (record books).

Assessment and Revenue Fixation

After measuring the land, revenue was assessed according to the average produce and price of crops over the previous ten years. This was called the Dahsala method.

• The government took one-third of the average value of produce as its share.
• The cultivator could pay either in cash or kind, although cash payments were encouraged to ensure regular revenue flow.
• The rates were periodically reviewed and adjusted for different crops and regions, ensuring both equity and flexibility.

Administrative Machinery

Todar Mal organised an efficient administrative structure to implement his reforms:

• Amin: Responsible for measurement and assessment in each district.
• Qanungo: Custodian of local land records and revenue history.
• Patwari: Maintained field-level records and measurement details.
• Karori: Revenue collector responsible for ensuring timely payments.

These officials reported to the provincial Diwan and ultimately to the imperial finance department at Agra or Delhi.

Impact of Todar Mal’s Land Measurement System

1. Uniformity and Standardisation: The introduction of the Ilahi Gaz and Jarib established a consistent method for land measurement across the empire.
2. Fairness in Taxation: The ten-year average yield method ensured that revenue demands were based on realistic assessments rather than arbitrary levies.
3. Administrative Efficiency: Detailed records improved transparency, reduced corruption, and enabled effective monitoring by the central government.
4. Increased Agricultural Productivity: Predictable taxation encouraged farmers to invest in their land and expand cultivation.
5. Model for Successor States: Todar Mal’s methods influenced later revenue systems such as the Raiyatwari, Mahalwari, and Permanent Settlement introduced under British rule.

Limitations

• The system relied heavily on accurate record-keeping, which depended on honest officials—something difficult to maintain over time.
• Droughts, crop failures, or political instability could disrupt the delicate balance of fixed assessments.
• In some regions, the system became rigid, leading to pressure on cultivators during poor harvests.