Kyoto protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that commits industrialised and developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in order to mitigate global climate change. Adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997, and entering into force on 16 February 2005, it represents the first legally binding agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to set emission reduction targets for participating nations.
The Kyoto Protocol laid the foundation for future global climate efforts by introducing mechanisms for carbon reduction and establishing accountability frameworks for developed countries.

Background and Context

The Kyoto Protocol emerged from growing global concern over the effects of climate change, primarily caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆).
The UNFCCC, adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, provided the basic framework for international cooperation on climate change. However, it did not impose binding emission limits. The Kyoto Protocol strengthened this framework by setting quantified and legally binding emission reduction targets for developed nations, known as Annex I countries.

Objectives

The main objectives of the Kyoto Protocol are:

• To stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
• To impose legally binding emission reduction targets on developed (Annex I) countries.
• To promote sustainable development and encourage technology transfer to developing countries.
• To establish flexible market-based mechanisms that allow countries to meet their emission targets efficiently.

Key Principles

1. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): Developed countries bear greater responsibility for reducing emissions, given their historical contribution to global pollution.
2. Legally Binding Commitments: Only industrialised nations listed under Annex I were legally obliged to meet specific emission reduction targets.
3. Flexibility Mechanisms: To achieve cost-effective emission reductions, the protocol introduced innovative market-based mechanisms.
4. Compliance and Accountability: Monitoring and reporting systems were established to ensure transparency and compliance among participating nations.

Structure and Commitments

1. Annex I Countries: These include industrialised nations and economies in transition (e.g., Japan, Canada, the United States, European Union members, and Russia). They were given binding emission targets relative to 1990 levels.
2. Non-Annex I Countries: Developing nations, including India and China, had no binding targets but were encouraged to pursue voluntary measures to promote sustainable development.
3. Commitment Periods:
   • First Commitment Period (2008–2012): Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective GHG emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels.
   • Second Commitment Period (2013–2020): Established under the Doha Amendment (2012), requiring a reduction of 18% below 1990 levels for participating countries.

Flexible Mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol introduced three innovative mechanisms to help countries meet their emission reduction obligations efficiently:

1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
   • Allows developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing nations and earn Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits.
   • Example: Renewable energy or reforestation projects in India or Africa generating CERs that developed nations can use to offset their emissions.
2. Joint Implementation (JI):
   • Enables developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in other developed or transition economies and receive Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) in return.
3. International Emissions Trading (IET):
   • Establishes a carbon market where countries with surplus emission allowances (below their target levels) can sell credits to those exceeding their limits.
   • This system gave rise to the global carbon trading market.

These mechanisms combined environmental objectives with economic incentives, encouraging global cooperation in emissions reduction.

Monitoring and Compliance

• Each country was required to maintain a national registry to track emissions and trading activities.
• Regular reporting and review were conducted through the UNFCCC secretariat.
• A Compliance Committee was established to address non-compliance issues and enforce corrective measures.

Role of India and Other Developing Countries

• India, as a non-Annex I country, had no binding emission reduction targets under the protocol.
• It actively participated in the Clean Development Mechanism, becoming one of the leading destinations for CDM projects due to its large renewable energy and afforestation potential.
• India’s approach under Kyoto reflected its commitment to sustainable development while maintaining the right to economic growth.

Other major developing countries like China and Brazil also utilised the CDM framework extensively, attracting significant international investment in clean energy.

Limitations and Criticisms

While pioneering in its approach, the Kyoto Protocol faced several challenges and criticisms:

1. Limited Participation:
   • The United States, one of the largest emitters, signed but never ratified the protocol.
   • Canada withdrew in 2011, and some developed countries did not take part in the second commitment period.
2. No Obligations for Developing Countries:
   • Critics argued that exempting major developing economies like China and India reduced the protocol’s overall impact on global emissions.
3. Ineffective Enforcement:
   • The compliance mechanisms lacked strong punitive measures, leading to weak enforcement.
4. Modest Reduction Targets:
   • The targets were too small to significantly curb global warming.
5. Transition to a New Framework:
   • Over time, it became clear that a more inclusive and flexible agreement was necessary, leading to the adoption of the Paris Agreement (2015) under the UNFCCC.

Achievements and Legacy

Despite its limitations, the Kyoto Protocol remains a landmark in international climate diplomacy:

• It established the first binding framework for emission reduction.
• It pioneered carbon trading and market-based mechanisms that continue under later agreements.
• It laid the groundwork for global cooperation and data collection on climate change.
• It raised global awareness about shared environmental responsibilities.