Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan, the world’s largest landlocked country, straddles both Europe and Asia, forming a vast bridge across the Eurasian steppe from the Volga River in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east. Its expansive territory, rich natural resources, and pivotal geography make it a key player in Central Asian politics, energy security, and regional integration. Since gaining independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has developed into the leading economy of Central Asia, balancing relations with Russia, China, and Western powers while promoting internal stability, economic diversification, and social modernisation.

Historical and Political Background

The origins of modern Kazakh identity stem from a fusion of Turkic nomadic tribes that populated the Central Asian steppe from the fifteenth century. These groups united under various khanates, forming a distinct cultural and political entity characterised by nomadic traditions and pastoral economies. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Russian Empire gradually absorbed Kazakh territories, incorporating them into its imperial frontier and administrative system.
After the Bolshevik Revolution, Kazakhstan became the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) in 1925. Soviet governance transformed the region socially and demographically, often through harsh measures. The collectivisation campaigns of the early 1930s caused widespread famine and repression, resulting in over one million deaths. Later, the Virgin Lands Campaign (1950s–60s) under Nikita Khrushchev encouraged large-scale agricultural expansion and migration, significantly altering the population’s ethnic composition as many Russians and other Slavs settled in the steppe.
By 1991, on the eve of independence, ethnic Kazakhs had become a minority within their own republic. Post-independence demographic policies, including the oralman repatriation programme, reversed this trend by facilitating the return of approximately one million ethnic Kazakhs from neighbouring states. As of 2024, Kazakhs represent over two-thirds of the population.
Kazakhstan proclaimed independence on 16 December 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. President Nursultan Nazarbayev (1991–2019) guided the nation through early state-building, economic stabilisation, and industrialisation, focusing on political continuity and control over strategic sectors. His successor, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, has pursued political and administrative reforms under the banner of “New Kazakhstan”, emphasising decentralisation, anti-corruption, and civic participation while maintaining economic growth and internal order.

Geography and Environment

Covering 2,724,900 square kilometres, Kazakhstan ranks as the tenth largest country in the world. It borders Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, while its western edge reaches the Caspian Sea, the world’s largest inland body of water. The landscape consists mainly of steppe, semi-desert, and desert, interspersed with mountainous regions in the east and southeast. The Tien Shan Mountains culminate in Pik Khan-Tengri (7,010 m), the nation’s highest peak.
Kazakhstan’s climate is continental, with hot summers, severe winters, and limited rainfall. The country’s internal drainage system encompasses major basins such as the Aral Sea, Lake Balkhash, and the Caspian lowlands, which host extensive oil and gas fields.
Natural resources constitute a cornerstone of Kazakhstan’s economy. The nation possesses vast reserves of oil, gas, coal, uranium, iron ore, copper, zinc, gold, and bauxite. The Tengiz and Kashagan oilfields are among the largest globally, sustaining export-led growth. Agriculture occupies roughly 80% of national land, primarily used for livestock grazing and grain cultivation.
However, the country faces serious environmental challenges. Soviet-era industrialisation left a legacy of pollution, radioactive contamination from the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, and ecological devastation from the shrinking Aral Sea. Current issues include soil degradation, salinisation, and desertification. Kazakhstan participates actively in international environmental frameworks such as the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Population and Society

With a population exceeding 20 million (2024), Kazakhstan is the most populous state in Central Asia, though sparsely populated overall. Population density remains extremely low at around 7.3 people per square kilometre. Urbanisation stands at 58%, with major cities including Astana (the capital), Almaty, and Shymkent.
Ethnic composition reflects historical migrations and Soviet policies. The population comprises Kazakhs (71%), Russians (15%), and smaller groups of Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uyghurs, Germans, and Tatars. The official language is Kazakh (Qazaq), while Russian maintains co-official status in administration, law, and commerce. A gradual shift from Cyrillic to Latin script began in the late 2010s as part of cultural modernisation.
Religious affiliation is predominantly Sunni Islam (69%), with Christian minorities (17%), mainly Russian Orthodox. Kazakhstan’s secular constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and interethnic harmony remains a pillar of national identity.
Social indicators show consistent progress. Life expectancy averages 73 years, and literacy is near-universal. Education expenditure accounts for approximately 5% of GDP, with an average school life expectancy of 14 years. Health outcomes continue to improve, though urban air quality, alcohol consumption, and tobacco use remain policy concerns.

Government and Political Structure

Kazakhstan functions as a presidential republic under a unitary system. The President, elected for a single seven-year term, serves as head of state, commander-in-chief, and chief architect of foreign and domestic policy. The Prime Minister, currently Olzhas Bektenov (since 2024), oversees day-to-day governance.
Legislative authority resides in the bicameral Parliament, comprising the Mazhilis (lower house) and Senate (upper house). Major political parties include Amanat (formerly Nur Otan), Ak Zhol, Auyl, and Respublica. Kazakhstan’s legal framework follows civil law traditions, blending Roman-Germanic principles with elements of Russian legal influence, while the Supreme Court stands as the highest judicial authority.

Economy and Resources

Kazakhstan commands over 60% of Central Asia’s total GDP, positioning it as the region’s economic powerhouse. In 2024, GDP (PPP) was estimated at $739 billion, with real growth of 4.8%. The economy is dominated by oil, gas, and mineral exports, yet state policy emphasises diversification, digitalisation, and industrial innovation.
The nation holds approximately 30 billion barrels of proven oil reserves and 2.4 trillion cubic metres of natural gas. Major production hubs—Kashagan, Karachaganak, and Tengiz—attract significant investment from Western and Asian corporations. Economic composition includes services (58%), industry (31%), and agriculture (4%). Leading agricultural products are wheat, barley, milk, and potatoes.
Macroeconomic indicators show moderate inflation (8.8% in 2024), low public debt (21% of GDP), and foreign reserves exceeding $45 billion. The country remains a top global uranium producer and operates major metallurgical and engineering sectors. Nonetheless, commodity dependence, state ownership, and corruption pose challenges to sustained reform.
Kazakhstan’s trade partners are geographically diverse, including China, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Its strategic role in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) enhances connectivity between China and Europe, with modernised rail and road corridors crossing its territory.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Communications

Kazakhstan maintains advanced energy and transport networks. Electricity generation capacity exceeds 27 million kilowatts, with full national electrification. Fossil fuels still supply nearly 88% of power, though renewable projects are expanding in hydro, solar, and wind sectors. In 2023, carbon emissions totalled 270 million metric tonnes, prompting policies aimed at green transition and energy efficiency.
The transport infrastructure encompasses over 16,600 km of railways, 132 airports, and expanding motorway networks, integrating domestic and transcontinental routes. The Caspian port of Aktau connects Kazakhstan to global maritime trade. Telecommunications coverage is near-universal, with 93% internet access and over 130 mobile subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, reflecting rapid digital development.

Defence and Foreign Relations

Kazakhstan’s Armed Forces consist of Land, Naval, and Air Defence Forces, supported by the National Guard and Border Service. Active personnel number about 50,000, maintaining internal stability and regional defence readiness. Military expenditure averages 1% of GDP, prioritising modernisation and reduced dependence on Russian weaponry.
The country is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and participates in NATO’s Partnership for Peace programme. It contributes to UN peacekeeping missions and regional security initiatives, reflecting a multivector foreign policy that balances partnerships with Russia, China, and Western nations.

Space and Science

Kazakhstan’s space heritage is globally recognised through the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the world’s first and largest space launch facility, leased to Russia until 2050. Historic missions, including Sputnik 1 and Yuri Gagarin’s flight, originated here. The national space agency, KazCosmos, promotes satellite development, remote sensing, and telecommunications projects, collaborating with partners across Europe, Asia, and North America. The upcoming Baiterek launch complex, jointly managed with Russia, aims to expand autonomous launch capabilities by 2027–2028.

Culture and Heritage

Kazakhstan’s cultural identity fuses Turkic nomadic heritage, Islamic traditions, and post-Soviet modernism. The national flag—a sky-blue field with a golden sun and eagle—symbolises peace and prosperity, while the coat of arms, centred on the shanyrak (yurt crown), represents unity and continuity.