Kathakali

Kathakali is one of India’s most powerful and visually striking classical dance-dramas, originating from the southern state of Kerala. Literally meaning “story-play” (from katha, story, and kali, performance or play), Kathakali combines dance, drama, music, mime, and visual spectacle to present mythological narratives, primarily drawn from the great Hindu epics—the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Puranas. It is a highly codified art form, characterised by elaborate makeup, vibrant costumes, expressive gestures, and rhythmic movements that convey stories of gods, demons, heroes, and celestial beings.

Historical Background

Kathakali evolved in the late 16th and early 17th centuries in Kerala, during a period of flourishing artistic experimentation. It emerged as a synthesis of earlier temple and folk performance traditions:

• Kutiyattam, the ancient Sanskrit theatre form of Kerala, contributed the dramatic structure and gestural language.
• Krishnattam, a dance-drama created by Manaveda, Zamorin of Calicut (late 16th century), depicting the life of Krishna, directly influenced Kathakali in its form and devotional theme.
• Ramanattam, developed by Kottarakkara Thampuran as a rival art to Krishnattam, expanded the repertoire to include stories from the Ramayana, setting the foundation for Kathakali’s narrative style.

Over the next two centuries, Kathakali evolved into an independent and sophisticated art form, enriched by contributions from royal patrons, scholars, and masters. It absorbed martial techniques from Kalaripayattu (Kerala’s indigenous martial art), the expressive abhinaya system from the Nāṭyaśāstra, and local folk music traditions, becoming a complete performing art.

Themes and Sources

The narratives of Kathakali, known as Attakathas (“stories for enactment”), are based on Sanskrit and Malayalam adaptations of mythological tales. They typically depict the eternal conflict between good and evil, the triumph of dharma (righteousness), and the moral complexities of human and divine action.
Common themes include episodes from:

• Mahabharata: Duryodhana Vadham, Karna Shapadham, Kalyana Sougandhikam.
• Ramayana: Seetha Swayamvaram, Bali Vadham, Lanka Dahanam.
• Puranas: Kuchela Vritham, Narakasura Vadham.

Each story is written in verse and interpreted through expressive acting, dance, and music, allowing performers to explore a wide range of human and divine emotions (rasa).

Performance Structure

A Kathakali performance traditionally begins at dusk and continues till dawn, unfolding in a sequence that transitions from ritualistic invocation to dramatic climax.
Structure:

1. Keli: The introductory drumming sequence performed as an announcement of the play.
2. Todayam: A devotional dance performed by junior artists to invoke blessings.
3. Purappadu: The formal entrance of the principal character, setting the tone for the narrative.
4. Melappadam: A musical interlude showcasing rhythmic virtuosity.
5. Katha Prasangam: The main dramatic performance, in which the story is enacted through dance, gestures, and expressions.

The Natyadharmi (stylised) mode dominates Kathakali, using codified gestures and movements to convey meaning rather than spoken dialogue. The language of gesture (mudra abhinaya) combined with facial expression (mukhabhinaya) enables the artist to narrate complex stories without words.

Acting and Expression

Abhinaya (Expression) in Kathakali is a highly refined art that synthesises four types of expression as defined in the Nāṭyaśāstra:

1. Āṅgika Abhinaya (physical expression): Includes body movements, postures, and hand gestures.
2. Vāchika Abhinaya (verbal expression): Delivered through songs sung by vocalists rather than the actors themselves.
3. Āhārya Abhinaya (costume and makeup): The most distinctive feature of Kathakali, used symbolically to identify character types.
4. Sāttvika Abhinaya (psychological expression): The emotional and spiritual intensity conveyed through the performer’s control over facial muscles and eyes.

Facial expression in Kathakali is an art in itself, with performers undergoing rigorous training to move their eyes and eyebrows independently, enabling them to express the navarasas (nine aesthetic emotions)—love, humour, pathos, anger, heroism, fear, disgust, wonder, and peace.

Music and Rhythm

Music in Kathakali is integral to the performance and is based on the Sopana Sangeetham tradition of Kerala temple music.

• The vocalists (ponnani and shakidi) sing verses in Malayalam, narrating the story, while the actors interpret them through dance and gesture.
• The compositions are set in classical ragas akin to those of Carnatic music.

Main Instruments:

• Chenda: Cylindrical drum providing high-pitched rhythmic accompaniment.
• Maddalam: Barrel drum with deep resonant tones.
• Ilathalam: Small cymbals marking tempo.
• Chengila: Metal gong maintaining rhythm.
• Shankh (conch): Blown at ritual intervals.

The tala (rhythmic cycles) and ragas are carefully synchronised with the emotional content of the scene, guiding the dancer’s movement and expression.

Costumes and Makeup (Āhārya Abhinaya)

The costume and makeup in Kathakali are among its most spectacular elements, serving as a visual code that identifies the character’s nature, role, and moral quality. The makeup, known as chutti, takes hours to apply and uses natural pigments.
Major Character Types:

1. Pacha (Green): Symbolises nobility, virtue, and divinity—used for heroes like Krishna, Arjuna, and Rama. The face is painted bright green with red lips and white chutti outlining the jaw.
2. Kathi (Knife): Represents arrogant or villainous characters, such as Ravana or Duryodhana. The base is green with red streaks and white knobs on the nose.
3. Kari (Black): Used for demonesses or evil female characters. The face is painted black with red and white markings.
4. Thadi (Beard):
   • Red Thadi (Chuvanna Thadi): For fierce demons like Bali or Sugriva.
   • White Thadi (Vella Thadi): For divine beings such as Hanuman.
   • Black Thadi (Karutha Thadi): For forest dwellers or hunters.
5. Minukku (Radiant): Represents gentle and spiritual female or sage characters, such as Sita or Rishis.

The costumes are voluminous and ornate, featuring layered skirts, large headgear (kireetam), and heavy ornaments. The visual effect is one of grandeur and otherworldliness, essential to the mythic tone of the drama.

Training and Technique

Kathakali training is rigorous and begins at an early age, often within traditional Kalari (training schools). The training system is closely linked to Kalaripayattu, Kerala’s martial art, which develops physical endurance, flexibility, and control.
Key Aspects of Training:

• Mastery over mudras (hand gestures), numbering more than 500.
• Control over facial muscles and eyes for expressive abhinaya.
• Precision in rhythm and body coordination.
• Intensive practice of postures, stances, and balance techniques.
• Physical fitness and stamina to perform throughout the night.

Training institutions such as Kerala Kalamandalam (founded in 1930 by Vallathol Narayana Menon) have played a pivotal role in standardising and preserving Kathakali pedagogy.

Major Schools (Sampradayas)

Over time, regional styles or sampradayas of Kathakali developed, differing in music, choreography, and presentation:

• Kalluvazhi School: Most widely practised, known for its precision, clarity, and balanced blend of emotion and technique.
• Kaplingadan School: Emphasises expressive acting and dramatic interpretation.
• Southern (Thekkan) Style: Known for exaggerated movements and vigorous energy.

Notable Exponents

Several legendary masters have shaped Kathakali’s development and global recognition:

• Guru Kunchu Kurup – One of the earliest exponents to codify acting technique.
• Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair – Revered for his powerful portrayals of heroic and villainous roles.
• Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair – Master of expressive abhinaya.
• Kalamandalam Gopi – Known for refined grace and emotional depth.
• Kottakkal Sivaraman – Famous for female (stree-vesham) roles.

These artists transformed Kathakali from a ritualistic temple art into a respected classical theatre form admired worldwide.

Symbolism and Aesthetic Philosophy

At its core, Kathakali is not mere entertainment but a form of visual devotion and moral allegory. Its aesthetic foundation lies in the concept of rasa, the essence of emotion experienced by the spectator. Through stylised expression, it elevates mythological stories into universal reflections of good and evil, pride and humility, love and sacrifice.
The dance-drama embodies both Natyadharmi (stylised, codified) and Lokadharmi (realistic) elements—its gestures and costumes are symbolic, yet its emotions deeply human.

Contemporary Relevance

Today, Kathakali is performed globally, transcending its regional and religious origins. It has inspired modern theatre, ballet, and fusion performances while retaining its traditional structure. Institutions such as Kerala Kalamandalam, Margi, and Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi continue to nurture new generations of artists.
Efforts to adapt Kathakali to modern themes—social, historical, and environmental—demonstrate its enduring versatility and relevance.