Karabakh

Karabakh, historically known as Nagorno-Karabakh, is a mountainous and ethnically diverse region located in the South Caucasus. It has long been at the centre of a complex territorial and ethnic dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan, both of which emerged as independent states following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The region’s contested status, its strategic location, and its deep cultural and historical associations have made it one of the most volatile flashpoints in post-Soviet Eurasia.

Geographic and Demographic Overview

Karabakh lies in the south-western part of modern-day Azerbaijan, bordered by Armenia to the west and Iran to the south. The term “Nagorno-Karabakh” translates from Russian, Persian, and Turkish roots to mean “Mountainous Black Garden,” reflecting the area’s terrain and natural beauty. The region covers approximately 4,400 square kilometres and includes a combination of mountainous highlands, forested valleys, and river basins.
Before the most recent conflicts, the population was predominantly ethnic Armenian, although several Azerbaijani communities also lived in surrounding districts. Due to multiple waves of conflict, large-scale displacements have transformed the demographic composition over time, with both Armenian and Azerbaijani populations experiencing significant displacement and loss.

Historical Background

Karabakh’s history is marked by centuries of changing rulers and influences. In antiquity, it formed part of the Armenian kingdoms, while in the medieval period it was contested by various Persian, Ottoman, and local Turkic dynasties. During the 18th century, the region became known as the Karabakh Khanate, a semi-independent principality under Persian suzerainty, ruled by Turkic khans.
In the early 19th century, following the Russo-Persian Wars, the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) brought Karabakh under Russian Imperial control. Under Tsarist rule, both Armenian and Azerbaijani communities inhabited the area, and tensions simmered as nationalist movements grew during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, Armenia and Azerbaijan both claimed Karabakh, leading to armed clashes. The region briefly became part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918–1920), though under Soviet rule, the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) was formally established within the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) in 1923. This arrangement planted the seeds for future disputes.

The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict

The modern phase of the Karabakh conflict began in the late 1980s, as the Soviet Union weakened and nationalist sentiments surged. The Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh demanded unification with Armenia, leading to violent clashes and the forced displacement of populations on both sides. Following the collapse of the USSR in 1991, full-scale war broke out between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
By the time a ceasefire was brokered in 1994 under Russian mediation, Armenian forces had gained control not only of Nagorno-Karabakh but also of several adjacent Azerbaijani districts. The self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh (the Armenian name for the region) declared independence, though it was not recognised internationally, including by Armenia itself. The ceasefire resulted in a fragile “frozen conflict” that persisted for decades.

The 2020 and 2023 Conflicts

The stalemate ended dramatically in September 2020, when Azerbaijan launched a large-scale military operation to regain control over its territories. The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War lasted for six weeks and resulted in significant territorial gains for Azerbaijan, including the strategic city of Shusha (Shushi). A ceasefire brokered by Russia on 10 November 2020 ended active hostilities, with Russian peacekeepers deployed to monitor the truce and safeguard the remaining Armenian population.
In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched another “anti-terror operation”, swiftly reclaiming full control of the remaining territory of Nagorno-Karabakh. Following this operation, the de facto authorities of Artsakh announced their dissolution effective from 1 January 2024, marking the end of the region’s three-decade-long self-governance. This event triggered a mass exodus of over 100,000 ethnic Armenians to Armenia, effectively emptying the region of its Armenian population.

International Reactions and Legal Status

Internationally, Nagorno-Karabakh is recognised as part of Azerbaijan’s sovereign territory, in line with UN resolutions affirming its territorial integrity. However, global reactions to the conflict have often reflected geopolitical interests.

• Russia played a mediating role, maintaining peacekeepers and diplomatic leverage in the South Caucasus.
• Turkey provided open support to Azerbaijan, including military and strategic assistance.
• Western states and organisations such as the European Union and OSCE have called for peaceful negotiations and the protection of human rights, but their influence on the ground has been limited.

The OSCE Minsk Group, co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States, was established in 1992 to mediate the conflict but has been largely sidelined since the 2020 war. Humanitarian organisations have expressed grave concern over the displacement crisis and the protection of cultural heritage in the region.

Cultural and Historical Heritage

Karabakh possesses a rich cultural and religious heritage, encompassing Armenian monasteries, Azerbaijani mosques, and historical fortresses that reflect centuries of coexistence and conflict. Important landmarks include:

• Gandzasar Monastery (13th century), a major Armenian religious site.
• Shusha, once a vibrant cultural centre for both Armenians and Azerbaijanis.
• Aghdam, now largely destroyed, symbolising the devastation of the wars.

Many heritage sites have been damaged or altered during the conflicts, and their preservation remains a contentious issue between Armenia and Azerbaijan, with UNESCO calling for impartial protection of cultural property.

Humanitarian and Political Implications

The recurrent wars in Karabakh have created severe humanitarian consequences. Tens of thousands have been killed, and hundreds of thousands displaced since the 1990s. The 2020 and 2023 conflicts particularly intensified the crisis, leading to international appeals for humanitarian access and post-war reconstruction.
Politically, the resolution of the Karabakh issue remains essential for lasting peace in the South Caucasus. The dispute has shaped regional alliances, energy security, and foreign policy strategies involving Russia, Turkey, Iran, and Western powers. For Armenia, the loss of Karabakh represents a profound national and psychological setback; for Azerbaijan, it is seen as a restoration of sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Contemporary Context

As of 2025, Karabakh is fully under Azerbaijani control, with the Azerbaijani government asserting plans for reintegration and reconstruction. Baku has initiated programmes aimed at rebuilding infrastructure, resettling displaced Azerbaijani communities, and asserting administrative control over the region. However, questions of reconciliation, justice, and the safe return of displaced populations remain unresolved.
The humanitarian aftermath continues to be monitored by international bodies, while the geopolitical implications of the conflict continue to influence regional diplomacy. Efforts towards sustainable peace require addressing deep-seated ethnic animosities, protecting cultural heritage, and ensuring respect for human rights under international law.