Irrigation In India

Irrigation in India constitutes the backbone of the country’s agricultural economy, which employs nearly 45 % of the workforce and contributes about 18 % to the national GDP (2025 estimates). Given the monsoon-dependent nature of Indian agriculture, irrigation ensures stable crop production, supports food security, and drives rural livelihoods. India’s irrigation system is a blend of ancient ingenuity and modern engineering, combining traditional methods such as tanks and wells with extensive canal networks and advanced micro-irrigation technologies.

Historical Evolution of Irrigation

The origins of irrigation in India trace back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (around 2500 BCE), which featured sophisticated canal systems, reservoirs, and drainage networks. Ancient texts like Kautilya’s Arthashastra refer to irrigation administration and water tax policies. Over centuries, rulers including the Mauryas, Cholas, and Mughals invested in canal and tank systems to ensure agricultural prosperity.
During the British colonial period, large-scale canal systems were established, such as the Ganga Canal (1854), Godavari Canal, and Western Yamuna Canal, which transformed vast stretches of North India into fertile plains. After independence, India focused on developing multipurpose river valley projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, and Hirakud projects. These laid the groundwork for the modern irrigation infrastructure that underpins agricultural productivity today.

Present Extent and Coverage

India’s total geographical area stands at 328.7 million hectares (Mha), of which the net sown area (NSA) is about 140 Mha—a figure relatively stable in recent years. The gross cropped area (GCA) reached 219.16 Mha in 2021–22, up from 201.18 Mha in 2014–15.
As of 2021–22, irrigation coverage was approximately:

• 55.7 % of NSA
• 54.9 % of GCA, compared to 49.3 % in FY 2016
• 44.4 % of total agricultural land (2023)

This implies that about 43.6 % of India’s cultivated area still depends entirely on rainfall, emphasising the continuing importance of irrigation development.

Types and Sources of Irrigation

India utilises both surface water and groundwater sources for irrigation, with groundwater accounting for nearly 70 % of the net irrigated area (NIA).
Breakdown of Sources (2021–22):

• Tube wells and bore wells: 36.5 Mha (46.9 %) – the largest contributor, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Punjab.
• Canals: 19.2 Mha (24.7 %) – dominant in northern plains; includes the Indira Gandhi Canal (~ 650 km, Rajasthan).
• Open wells: 9.5 Mha (12.2 %) – traditional source, prone to seasonal depletion.
• Tanks: 2.1 Mha (2.8 %) – mainly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Telangana; declining due to siltation and poor maintenance.
• Other sources (rivers, lift, micro-irrigation): 10.4 Mha (13.4 %) – includes emerging modern systems like drip and sprinkler irrigation, which cover about 12 Mha (as of 2024).

Electricity powers nearly 76 % of minor irrigation schemes (2017–18), a substantial rise from 56 % in 2011, driven by rural electrification and mechanisation.

Quantitative Trends in Irrigation Development

Projections for 2025 estimate a gross irrigated area of around 125 Mha and net irrigated area of 78–80 Mha, supported by favourable rainfall (105 % of the long-period average) and continued investment under government schemes.

Regional Pattern of Irrigation

The spatial distribution of irrigation in India is highly uneven:

• Northern India: Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh exhibit irrigation coverage exceeding 90 %, primarily through canals and tube wells.
• Western India: Rajasthan and Gujarat rely on the Indira Gandhi Canal, lift irrigation, and groundwater extraction.
• Southern India: Tank irrigation remains important, complemented by drip and sprinkler systems for horticulture.
• Eastern India: Bihar and West Bengal depend largely on tube wells due to high groundwater availability.
• Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra employ mixed systems, combining wells, canals, and tanks.

Top Five States by Net Irrigated Area (FY 2022):

1. Uttar Pradesh – 15.5 Mha (20 %)
2. Madhya Pradesh – 8.5 Mha (10.9 %)
3. Maharashtra – 6.2 Mha (8 %)
4. Punjab – 5.8 Mha (7.4 %)
5. Rajasthan – 5.5 Mha (7.1 %)

Government Schemes and Major Projects

The Government of India has implemented several flagship schemes to enhance irrigation coverage and efficiency.

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY, launched 2015):
  • Objective: “Har Khet Ko Pani” (Water for Every Field) and “Per Drop More Crop” (Water Efficiency).
  • Investment: Over USD 10 billion to date.
  • Achievements: Additional irrigation potential of 10.8 Mha created by 2024.
  • Includes subcomponents like:
    • Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) – Completion of 66 major and medium projects, adding 2.9 Mha potential (as of 2025).
    • Per Drop More Crop (PDMC) – Micro-irrigation expansion to 8.3 Mha (2023).
    • Watershed Development Component (WDC-PMKSY) – Soil and moisture conservation in rainfed regions.
• Major Projects:
  • Ken–Betwa River Linking Project – India’s first interlinking river project, under construction and scheduled for completion by 2025.
  • Polavaram Project (Andhra Pradesh) – A multipurpose dam supporting irrigation, flood control, and hydropower.
  • Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) – Promotes sustainable groundwater management in critical blocks.
• Recent Policy Targets:
  • NITI Aayog and Economic Survey 2024–25 project 60 % irrigation coverage of NSA by 2030.
  • Focus on automation, sensor-based irrigation, and digital water management platforms (60 % of farmers reportedly use mobile apps for irrigation planning in 2025).

Modernisation and Technological Advances

Micro-irrigation technologies are gaining momentum, with 12 Mha under drip and sprinkler systems as of 2024, targeting 30–50 % water savings. Precision irrigation, GIS-based mapping, and satellite monitoring have been integrated into water management frameworks. Smart irrigation controllers and solar-powered pumps are being promoted to enhance efficiency and reduce energy dependence.
The irrigation automation market, valued at USD 252 million in 2024, is projected to reach USD 899 million by 2030 (CAGR ≈ 11 %), reflecting rapid technological integration.

Challenges and Concerns

Despite significant progress, several challenges persist:

• Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction threatens aquifers in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Rajasthan; over 1,000 administrative blocks are classified as over-exploited.
• Under-utilisation of Created Potential: Only about 65 % of the 140 Mha potential created is effectively used due to canal losses, siltation, and poor maintenance.
• Inequitable Access: Small and marginal farmers face limited access to modern irrigation facilities.
• Environmental Issues: Waterlogging and soil salinisation in canal command areas.
• Financial Constraints: Delays in project execution and cost overruns reduce scheme efficiency.
• Climate Change: Increasingly erratic rainfall patterns and rising temperatures heighten water stress and crop vulnerability.

Significance and Way Forward

Irrigation remains the key to ensuring food security, rural employment, and sustainable agriculture. While India has made substantial progress in expanding irrigation coverage—from 47 % in 2016 to over 55 % in 2022—future efforts must emphasise efficiency, equity, and sustainability rather than mere expansion.
Key future strategies include:

• Promoting integrated water resource management at basin and watershed levels.
• Expanding micro-irrigation and automation technologies.
• Encouraging community participation through water user associations.
• Implementing groundwater recharge and rainwater harvesting programmes.
• Strengthening institutional coordination across the Ministry of Jal Shakti, NITI Aayog, and State Irrigation Departments.

As the country faces mounting pressure from climate change and population growth, a sustainable, technology-driven, and participatory approach will be indispensable for ensuring water security and agricultural resilience in the decades ahead.