Iraq

Iraq, located at the crossroads of the Middle East, is a nation of immense historical depth and contemporary political complexity. Once known as Mesopotamia, it is celebrated as the cradle of civilisation, where humanity’s earliest cities, writing systems, and codified laws emerged. Modern Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic, endowed with vast oil resources, yet continually navigating the challenges of reconstruction, governance, and social reconciliation after decades of war, occupation, and instability.

Historical Background and Political Evolution

The territory of present-day Iraq was long under the Ottoman Empire before coming under British administration following the First World War. The League of Nations Mandate for Mesopotamia was established in 1920, and the Kingdom of Iraq attained independence in 1932, under the rule of King Faisal I. The monarchy was overthrown in a 1958 coup d’état, which established a republic, ushering in a turbulent era of coups, factional rivalry, and military rule.
From 1979 to 2003, Saddam Hussein and the Ba’ath Party ruled Iraq through authoritarian control and aggressive nationalism. This period witnessed severe internal repression, the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), and the 1990 invasion of Kuwait, which prompted the 1991 Gulf War and subsequent UN sanctions. Throughout the 1990s, Iraq faced international isolation, economic hardship, and weapons inspections under UN auspices.
The U.S.-led invasion in 2003, citing non-compliance with UN resolutions, overthrew Saddam Hussein’s regime and initiated a prolonged occupation and insurgency. A new constitution (2005) introduced a federal framework, recognising the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) with autonomy over Erbil, Dahuk, and Sulaymaniyah. Democratic elections under this constitution marked a return to representative politics after nearly half a century.
Since 2005, Iraq has conducted four national elections, the most recent in 2021, which resulted in the formation of a government led by Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al-Sudani (since 2022). However, provincial elections have been repeatedly delayed since 2013. From 2014 to 2017, Iraq engaged in a major campaign against ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham), reclaiming territories such as Mosul and Ramadi, but at immense human and infrastructural cost. Contemporary governance remains shaped by efforts to maintain equilibrium among Shia, Sunni, and Kurdish political forces.

Geography and Environment

Iraq spans 438,317 sq km, bordered by Iran, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, with a 58 km coastline on the Persian Gulf. Its geography includes the alluvial plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the Shatt al-Arab waterway, and the Zagros Mountains in the northeast, where Cheekha Dar (3,611 m) marks the highest point.
The climate is largely arid, with hot summers and mild winters, while the northern highlands experience snow and seasonal flooding. Natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, and sulphur. Agricultural land constitutes 21.8%, arable land 11.4%, and forest 1.9% (2023).
Environmental degradation is acute. Desertification, salinisation, and wetland loss threaten agricultural livelihoods, while air pollution and industrial contamination persist, particularly around Baghdad and Basra. CO₂ emissions (190.8 million tonnes, 2023) place Iraq among the top emitters globally. Though a signatory to several environmental treaties, Iraq has not ratified the Paris Agreement, reflecting the ongoing tension between economic recovery and ecological sustainability.

Demography and Society

As of 2024, Iraq’s population is 42.08 million, with a median age of 22.4 years, underscoring a youthful demographic profile. Arabs constitute approximately 75–80%, Kurds 15–20%, and minority groups—including Turkmen, Yezidis, Assyrians, Shabaks, and others—form the remainder. Arabic and Kurdish are official languages, while Turkmen and Syriac hold regional status.
Islam is professed by around 95–98% of Iraqis, divided mainly between Shia (61–64%) and Sunni (29–34%) branches. Small Christian, Yezidi, and Mandaean communities continue to exist, though greatly reduced since 2003 due to conflict and migration.
Urbanisation stands at 71.6%, with major cities including Baghdad (7.7 million), Mosul, Basra, Najaf, Kirkuk, and Erbil. Population concentration follows the river valleys, while the western desert remains sparsely inhabited. The total fertility rate is 3.1 births per woman, and life expectancy is 73.7 years. Infant mortality is 18.7 per 1,000, and maternal mortality is 66 per 100,000 live births.

Health, Education, and Social Conditions

Despite improvements since 2003, healthcare access remains uneven. 98% of Iraqis have access to improved drinking water and sanitation, yet medical capacity is limited, with 1.02 physicians and 1.3 hospital beds per 1,000 population. Challenges include infrastructure deficits, medical staff emigration, and public health burdens such as obesity (30.4%) and tobacco use (18.6%).
Education is underfunded relative to needs, with 4.7% of GDP spent on schooling. The literacy rate is 86%, showing a 15% gender gap, and female participation in education and employment remains constrained, especially outside urban centres. The country’s long conflict history has disrupted learning continuity and human capital development.

Government and Administration

Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic, formally titled the Republic of Iraq (Jumhuriyat al-Iraq). The 2005 Constitution enshrines the Council of Representatives (COR) as the unicameral legislature with 329 seats, elected through proportional representation. The President, currently Latif Rashid (since October 2022), serves as head of state, while Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al-Sudani functions as head of government.
Iraq’s multi-party landscape is highly fragmented. Leading political formations include the State of Law Coalition, Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), Fatah Alliance, Sadrist Bloc, and Taqadum. The Federal Supreme Court oversees constitutional interpretation and electoral disputes, supported by the Court of Cassation. The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) retains substantial autonomy, maintaining its own parliament, ministries, and Peshmerga forces, though periodic friction arises over oil revenues and territorial jurisdiction in northern Iraq.

Economic Structure and Development

Iraq’s economy is dominated by oil, which contributes over 50% of GDP and nearly all export earnings. Sectoral composition (2024) includes industry (51.6%), services (45.8%), and agriculture (3.4%). Proven oil reserves exceed 145 billion barrels, ranking fifth globally.
Real GDP (PPP) reached $585.9 billion (2024), with per capita GDP at $12,700. Economic fluctuations correlate closely with global oil prices. Unemployment remains high at 15.6%, and youth unemployment surpasses 30%. Inflation is moderate (4.4%, 2023), and public debt is relatively low (27.4% of GDP), supported by foreign reserves exceeding $100 billion.
Exports ($107.8 billion, 2023) are dominated by crude oil, mainly to China (33%) and India (28%). Imports ($81.2 billion) consist largely of consumer goods, machinery, and refined fuels, sourced from UAE, China, and Turkey. The current account surplus stood at $28.4 billion (2023). Agriculture, employing many rural workers, remains vulnerable to water scarcity and soil degradation, though key crops include wheat, dates, maize, tomatoes, and grapes.

Energy and Infrastructure

Iraq is a major oil producer (4.45 million barrels/day), but refining capacity and power generation lag demand. Fossil fuels account for 98.8% of electricity generation, with system losses of 79.9 billion kWh (2023). The country imports significant refined petroleum and gas from Iran. Renewables, comprising solar and hydro, provide less than 2% of output, though investment in solar farms and grid modernisation is rising.
Transport infrastructure includes 73 airports, six seaports—notably Umm Qasr and Basra Oil Terminal—and 2,272 km of railways. Telecommunications have expanded rapidly, reaching 45.7 million mobile subscriptions and 82% Internet penetration (2023), facilitating digital connectivity and commerce.

Defence and Security

Iraq’s security apparatus consists of the Iraqi Security Forces (ISF)—including Army, Navy, Air Force, and Counterterrorism Service—and the Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF), an umbrella organisation of over 60 militias. The Peshmerga, operating under the KRG, function semi-independently. Active personnel number around 200,000, supplemented by 150,000 Peshmerga and 200,000 militia fighters.
Defence expenditure averages 2.5% of GDP (2024). Iraq continues to cooperate with the NATO Mission Iraq (NMI) and the U.S.-led Operation Inherent Resolve for training and counterterrorism support. Security priorities include border control, anti-insurgency operations, and post-conflict reconstruction.

International Relations and Cultural Heritage

Iraq is a member of the United Nations, OPEC, Arab League, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and IMF, and holds observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Diplomatic relations with regional and Western powers have normalised since 2017, though Iranian influence remains substantial in domestic politics and security.