Iranian Revolution

The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, refers to the series of events in 1978–1979 that led to the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. It marked a pivotal transformation in Iran’s political, social, and cultural structure and had profound implications for global politics, particularly in the Middle East.

Background and Causes

The roots of the Iranian Revolution lay in deep political, economic, and social discontent that accumulated throughout the 20th century. The Pahlavi dynasty, established in 1925 by Reza Shah Pahlavi, sought to modernise and secularise Iran, centralising power and diminishing clerical influence. His policies included industrialisation, the expansion of education, and the suppression of tribal autonomy. However, his authoritarian style and close association with Western powers alienated many Iranians.
Following Reza Shah’s abdication in 1941, his son Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi continued these modernising reforms but with increasing political repression. The White Revolution of 1963 introduced land reforms, female suffrage, and literacy campaigns but also deepened class divisions and reduced the influence of the clergy. Economic inequality widened as rapid urbanisation and oil-driven growth benefited the elite, while inflation and unemployment affected the working class.
Additionally, the Shah’s reliance on Western—especially American—support and the presence of foreign advisers were seen as symbols of cultural imperialism. The SAVAK, Iran’s secret police, became notorious for silencing political dissent, fuelling widespread fear and resentment. Opposition coalesced around religious leaders, students, and intellectuals who sought to replace the monarchy with a system rooted in Islamic principles.

The Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a senior Shi’a cleric, emerged as the leading figure of resistance. Initially exiled in 1964 for criticising the Shah’s policies and Western ties, Khomeini continued to inspire opposition through clandestine writings and cassette recordings circulated among Iranians. His message combined religious doctrine with populist rhetoric, condemning Western materialism and advocating social justice under Islamic governance.
By the late 1970s, economic hardship, inflation, and corruption exacerbated public dissatisfaction. A coalition of diverse groups—ranging from Islamic fundamentalists to secular nationalists—rallied under Khomeini’s banner, unified by opposition to the Shah. His calls for “independence, freedom, and Islamic government” resonated deeply with the population.

The Course of the Revolution

Mass protests erupted in January 1978, beginning with demonstrations in the city of Qom following a government attack on Khomeini’s supporters. The regime’s heavy-handed response, resulting in deaths of protesters, triggered a cycle of mourning and further demonstrations every forty days, in accordance with Shi’a tradition. By mid-1978, strikes paralysed major sectors, including the vital oil industry, crippling the economy and undermining the regime’s stability.
Despite attempts at reform and concessions, the Shah failed to regain control. His departure from Iran on 16 January 1979 marked the end of royal rule. Khomeini returned triumphantly from exile on 1 February 1979, greeted by millions in Tehran. Within days, revolutionary forces dismantled the monarchy, and the Islamic Republic of Iran was proclaimed on 11 February 1979.

Establishment of the Islamic Republic

After the Shah’s overthrow, Khomeini consolidated power through a referendum held in March 1979, in which the majority of Iranians voted to establish an Islamic Republic. The new government adopted a theocratic constitution based on the concept of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), granting the Supreme Leader ultimate authority over political and religious matters.
A new constitution was approved in December 1979, officially designating Iran as an Islamic Republic. Revolutionary courts conducted mass trials and executions of former regime members, and secular and leftist factions that had supported the revolution were gradually suppressed. The Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) was established to protect the revolution’s ideals and counter internal and external threats.

International and Regional Impact

The Iranian Revolution had a transformative effect on regional and global politics. It ended Iran’s alignment with the United States, replacing it with an anti-Western and anti-imperialist stance. The U.S. Embassy hostage crisis (1979–1981), in which American diplomats were held for 444 days, further strained relations and led to the severance of diplomatic ties between Iran and the United States.
Neighbouring monarchies, particularly in the Arab Gulf, viewed the revolution with alarm, fearing that Islamic revolutionary ideals might spread to their own populations. The revolution inspired Islamist movements across the Middle East and beyond, altering the ideological landscape of the Muslim world. The ensuing Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) was partly motivated by Iraqi fears of revolutionary contagion.

Social and Cultural Changes

The revolution brought sweeping changes to Iranian society. Western cultural influences were curtailed, and Islamic codes of conduct were institutionalised. Laws governing dress, media, and education were restructured in accordance with Islamic principles, leading to the enforcement of the hijab for women and gender segregation in public spaces. The legal system was reoriented to conform with Sharia law, and religious institutions gained a central role in governance and daily life.
At the same time, literacy rates improved through extensive education campaigns, and emphasis was placed on self-reliance and domestic industrialisation. However, strict censorship, political repression, and the limitation of personal freedoms prompted criticism from human rights organisations.

Criticism and Legacy

Critics of the revolution argue that it replaced one form of authoritarianism with another. While it succeeded in ending foreign domination and monarchy, the Islamic Republic has been accused of curbing political pluralism, suppressing dissent, and restricting women’s rights. The initial unity among revolutionary groups disintegrated as clerical dominance intensified.