India

The Republic of India, located in South Asia, is the world’s largest democracy and a key player in global economics and geopolitics. Occupying the majority of the Indian subcontinent, it shares borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east, with the Indian Ocean forming its southern boundary. India’s civilisational continuity, democratic governance, and immense cultural diversity mark it as a nation bridging ancient heritage with modern progress.

Historical Background

The origins of Indian civilisation trace back to the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE), one of the earliest known urban societies located in present-day north-western India and Pakistan. Following this period, around 1500 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes entered the subcontinent, merging with local Dravidian cultures to lay the foundations of Vedic civilisation, as reflected in the Vedas, India’s earliest sacred texts.
The Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE) unified much of South Asia under Emperor Ashoka, whose policies of nonviolence and moral governance shaped subsequent Indian philosophy. Later, the Gupta Empire (4th–6th centuries CE) ushered in the Golden Age of India, renowned for advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature.
From the 8th century, Islamic influence expanded through trade and conquest, culminating in the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1858). The Mughal era witnessed extensive cultural synthesis and architectural achievements, including the construction of the Taj Mahal and the flourishing of Persian-Indian artistic traditions.
By the 16th century, European powers—Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British—had begun establishing trading posts in India. The British East India Company gradually gained dominance, leading to the establishment of British Crown rule in 1858. India became a pivotal part of the British Empire, often called its “Jewel in the Crown.”
The Indian independence movement, spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, employed nonviolent resistance and mass civil disobedience to achieve freedom on 15 August 1947, which coincided with the partition creating Pakistan. The new Republic of India adopted its Constitution on 26 January 1950, proclaiming itself a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.
Post-independence, India pursued industrialisation and social reform, later embracing economic liberalisation in 1991, transforming it into a dynamic and rapidly expanding economy. Despite enduring challenges such as poverty and inequality, India remains a major regional and global power.

Geography and Environment

India covers an area of 3,287,263 square kilometres, ranking eighth globally in size. It stretches from the towering Himalayas in the north to the coastal plains of the south, flanked by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The nation’s geographical diversity includes deserts in Rajasthan, fertile plains along the Ganges, and lush forests in the Western Ghats.
The country’s highest peak, Kanchenjunga (8,586 m), lies in the eastern Himalayas. Its climate ranges from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the north. India’s rich natural resources include coal, iron ore, bauxite, and petroleum, alongside vast tracts of arable land.
However, environmental pressures—such as deforestation, pollution, and the effects of climate change—pose significant challenges. Natural hazards, including monsoonal floods, droughts, and cyclones, frequently affect various regions.

People and Society

As of 2024, India’s population stands at 1.41 billion, making it the second most populous nation globally. The median age is approximately 29.8 years, reflecting a young demographic profile.
Ethnically, the population comprises Indo-Aryans (72%), Dravidians (25%), and other minorities (3%). The country recognises 22 scheduled languages, with Hindi as the primary official language and English serving as an associate official language for administrative and commercial purposes.
India is home to major world religions: Hinduism (79.8%), Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), and Sikhism (1.7%), along with smaller Buddhist, Jain, and indigenous communities.
Educational attainment has improved significantly, with a literacy rate of 82% and education expenditure at 4.1% of GDP. Health indicators show steady progress, though maternal and infant mortality remain development challenges. Rapid digitalisation has enhanced access to education, healthcare, and governance, bridging many socio-economic divides.

Government and Politics

The Republic of India operates as a federal parliamentary democracy with a bicameral legislature consisting of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
The President serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the executive head of government. Since 2014, Narendra Modi has served as Prime Minister, leading the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
India’s Constitution guarantees fundamental rights, judicial independence, and a common law legal system. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, supported by High Courts and District Courts.
In 2023, India passed legislation to reserve one-third of parliamentary seats for women, to be implemented in 2029—a landmark step in promoting gender representation.
Administratively, the nation comprises 28 states and 8 union territories. National symbols include the Lion Capital of Ashoka, the tricolour flag, and the national anthem “Jana Gana Mana.”

Economy

India ranks as the fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). Economic reforms since 1991 have fuelled rapid growth across manufacturing, services, and technology sectors.
Key indicators (2024):

• GDP (nominal): $3.91 trillion
• GDP (PPP): $14.24 trillion
• Growth rate: 6.5%
• Inflation: 5%
• Unemployment: 4.3%

The economy is dominated by services (49.9%), followed by industry (24.5%) and agriculture (16.4%). Major industries include information technology, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, textiles, and renewable energy.
India’s trade network is extensive, with exports valued at $822 billion and imports at $923 billion. Major trading partners include the United States, China, UAE, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
Strategic initiatives such as Make in India, Digital India, and Atmanirbhar Bharat aim to strengthen domestic innovation and self-reliance.

Energy and Infrastructure

India’s energy demand is vast, relying on a diversified mix:

• Fossil fuels: 75.5%
• Hydro: 8.2%
• Solar: 6.6%
• Wind: 5.1%
• Nuclear: 2.7%

With 127.7 billion tonnes of coal reserves, India ranks among the top global producers. The nation operates 20 nuclear reactors with several more under construction, aiming to expand low-carbon energy production.
Infrastructure development remains a cornerstone of policy. India possesses one of the world’s largest railway networks (65,554 km), 315 airports, and 56 major ports. Over 1.14 billion mobile subscriptions and expanding internet penetration have supported its digital economy.

Defence and Security

India maintains a robust defence structure with around 1.5 million active personnel, ranking among the world’s largest armed forces. The military comprises the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard, operating under the Ministry of Defence.
Defence expenditure accounts for about 2% of GDP, with growing emphasis on indigenous manufacturing through Make in India (Defence). India is also an active participant in UN peacekeeping operations, deploying over 6,000 personnel abroad.
Persistent border tensions with China and Pakistan shape India’s security outlook, while partnerships with the United States, France, Israel, Russia, and Japan strengthen strategic capabilities.

Science, Space, and Technology

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), founded in 1969, has achieved international acclaim for cost-effective and innovative missions. Major accomplishments include:

• Chandrayaan lunar missions
• Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission)
• Aditya-L1 (Solar Observatory)
• The upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme

India’s private space industry has grown rapidly, fostering international collaborations and expanding its commercial satellite market.

Culture and Heritage

India’s cultural identity is shaped by millennia of interaction between diverse peoples, faiths, and artistic traditions. It is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and home to numerous linguistic and ethnic communities.
The nation boasts 43 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Taj Mahal, Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Hampi, Jaipur City, and Kaziranga National Park.