Humayun: Early Expeditions

Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun (1508–1556) was the second ruler of the Mughal Empire, succeeding his father Babur in 1530. His reign was marked by both challenges and achievements, particularly in the early years when he sought to consolidate Mughal authority across northern India. The period of his early expeditions reflects the difficulties of managing a newly established empire, beset by internal rivalries, regional uprisings, and ambitious Afghan and Rajput chiefs. Humayun’s early military campaigns were crucial in shaping the political trajectory of the Mughal state before his temporary fall from power.

Political Situation at Humayun’s Accession

When Humayun ascended the throne in December 1530, the Mughal Empire was still in a formative stage. Babur’s conquests, though impressive, were not yet secure. The empire stretched from Kabul to Bihar, but its foundations were fragile:

• The Afghan nobles, displaced by the Mughals, continued to resist Mughal authority.
• The Rajput chiefs, particularly in Rajasthan, remained powerful and independent.
• The Mughal administration lacked cohesion, as Babur’s empire was a loosely integrated collection of conquered territories.
• Within the royal family, succession disputes and fraternal jealousy further weakened unity.

Humayun’s early reign was therefore consumed by the need to stabilise and consolidate these territories through a series of military expeditions and strategic diplomacy.

Campaign against Kalinjar and Jaunpur (1531–1532)

One of Humayun’s earliest expeditions was directed towards Kalinjar, a formidable fort held by the Bundela ruler Pratap Rudra Dev. The campaign, undertaken in 1531, aimed to subdue local rulers who refused to acknowledge Mughal suzerainty. Although Humayun besieged the fort, the campaign did not yield a decisive victory, and the conflict ended with a negotiated settlement.
Following this, Humayun turned his attention eastward towards Jaunpur, where Afghan elements under Mahmud Lodi—the brother of the former Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi—were attempting to reassert their authority. Humayun’s expedition in 1532 resulted in the defeat of these Afghan forces, reaffirming Mughal control over eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This early success temporarily strengthened his position, though it required continuous vigilance to maintain.

Expedition to Gujarat (1535)

Perhaps the most notable of Humayun’s early expeditions was his campaign in Gujarat. The region, under Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, had emerged as a powerful and independent sultanate. Bahadur Shah had ambitions of expanding into Malwa and Rajasthan, which posed a direct threat to Mughal influence in western India.

• In 1535, Humayun launched a well-organised military expedition against Bahadur Shah.
• The Mughal army, advancing through Malwa, captured Champaner, an important stronghold of Gujarat, after a vigorous siege.
• Bahadur Shah fled towards the coast and sought refuge with the Portuguese at Diu, where he was later killed in 1537.

The victory over Gujarat enhanced Humayun’s prestige and extended Mughal authority to the western coast. However, his decision to remain in Gujarat for several months weakened control over the northern and eastern provinces, giving rivals like Sher Khan Sur (later Sher Shah Suri) the opportunity to consolidate power in Bihar.

Conflict with Bahadur Shah and Relations with the Portuguese

The Gujarat expedition also brought the Mughals into indirect contact with the Portuguese, who had established a stronghold at Diu. Although Humayun’s primary focus was territorial consolidation, Bahadur Shah’s alliance with the Portuguese introduced a new dimension to regional politics.
Humayun’s forces successfully captured several key cities, including Ahmedabad and Mandu, demonstrating Mughal military efficiency. However, the empire lacked sufficient administrative machinery to sustain control over distant provinces. Within a short time of Humayun’s withdrawal, Gujarat fell back into disorder, and Mughal influence waned.

Expedition to Malwa and the Central Indian Campaigns

Humayun’s attention next turned to Malwa, a strategically important region linking northern India with the Deccan. After the fall of Gujarat, Humayun sought to extend his authority over Malwa, which had been annexed by Bahadur Shah earlier. His campaign succeeded in reasserting temporary Mughal control, though administrative consolidation remained weak.
The political instability of these regions made them difficult to govern effectively. Local Afghan chiefs, particularly those displaced from the Lodi dynasty, continued to foment rebellion against Mughal officials.

Campaigns against Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri) in Bihar and Bengal (1537–1539)

While Humayun was engaged in the western campaigns, Sher Khan Sur, an Afghan noble who initially served under the Mughals, had consolidated his power in Bihar and later in Bengal. By the late 1530s, Sher Khan had emerged as the most formidable rival to Mughal supremacy.
In 1537, Humayun launched an expedition against Sher Khan, aiming to suppress his growing power before it threatened the empire’s core territories. He captured Gaur (the capital of Bengal) after a prolonged siege, but this success was strategically flawed:

• Humayun remained in Bengal for too long, giving Sher Khan time to regroup and strengthen his position in Bihar.
• Communication and supply lines with Agra became overstretched.
• Discontent and disorganisation spread among his nobles.

The campaign culminated in Humayun’s defeat at the Battle of Chausa (1539), followed by another catastrophic loss at Kannauj (1540). These defeats forced Humayun to flee India, leading to his exile in Persia for nearly fifteen years.

Assessment of Early Expeditions

Humayun’s early expeditions reveal both his ambition and his shortcomings as a ruler:

• Strategic Strengths:
  • Demonstrated military courage and organisational skill in the campaigns of Gujarat and Jaunpur.
  • Sought to expand Mughal influence through both conquest and diplomacy.
  • Displayed tolerance and magnanimity, often preferring negotiation to outright destruction.
• Weaknesses and Limitations:
  • His prolonged stay in conquered regions such as Gujarat and Bengal weakened central authority.
  • Failure to perceive the rising power of Sher Shah Suri proved fatal to his early empire.
  • Lack of coordination among his brothers—Kamran, Askari, and Hindal—created internal divisions that undermined unity.
  • Administrative consolidation lagged behind territorial expansion, making his control unsustainable.

Significance of the Early Campaigns

Despite their mixed outcomes, Humayun’s early expeditions were crucial in defining the political contours of the Mughal Empire:

• They demonstrated the Mughals’ intent to build a pan-Indian empire, extending from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west.
• His campaigns laid the groundwork for future Mughal military and administrative reforms, later perfected by Akbar.
• The early setbacks taught the Mughals valuable lessons about governance, logistics, and regional politics in the Indian subcontinent.