Harappa

Harappa is one of the principal urban centres of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation, which flourished between approximately 2600 and 1900 BCE in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent. Located on the banks of the Ravi River in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, Harappa was a major city that exemplified the highly organised urban planning, technological sophistication, and socio-economic complexity of this Bronze Age civilisation. The site gives its name to the entire culture, as it was the first of the Indus cities to be excavated and studied extensively.

Discovery and Excavation

The ruins of Harappa were first noted in the early 19th century by British engineers during the construction of the Lahore–Multan railway line, when ancient bricks from the site were used as ballast. However, systematic archaeological excavations began only in the 1920s under the direction of Sir John Marshall, Daya Ram Sahni, and R. D. Banerji of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Their discoveries revealed the existence of a previously unknown, highly developed urban culture that paralleled those of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Subsequent excavations, particularly those led by Mortimer Wheeler in the 1940s and later by Rasool Bakhsh Shaikh, M. R. Mughal, and Richard H. Meadow, have uncovered new insights into Harappa’s social organisation, economy, and decline. Together with Mohenjo-daro, Harappa forms the twin epicentres of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Urban Planning and Architecture

Harappa exhibits remarkable evidence of advanced urban planning and civil engineering. The city was laid out on a grid pattern, with streets running at right angles, dividing the settlement into rectangular blocks. The urban layout demonstrates meticulous planning and centralised governance.
The city is divided into two major sections:

• The Citadel: Built on a raised platform and fortified with massive brick walls, it likely housed public buildings, granaries, and possibly administrative or ceremonial structures.
• The Lower Town: The residential area, located to the east of the Citadel, contained well-planned houses and streets, reflecting a high standard of civic organisation.

Buildings were primarily constructed from baked bricks of uniform size. Many houses had multiple rooms, private courtyards, bathrooms, and sophisticated drainage systems, indicating an emphasis on sanitation and urban hygiene. The covered drains and soak-pits along the streets show a level of municipal engineering unprecedented in the ancient world.

Economy and Trade

Harappa’s economy was primarily based on agriculture, crafts, and trade. The fertile plains of the Ravi and Indus rivers supported the cultivation of wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton—the last being one of the earliest known uses of the fibre in the world.
The city was also a thriving craft and industrial centre. Archaeological evidence reveals workshops engaged in bead-making, pottery, metallurgy, and shell and ivory carving. Harappan artisans produced tools and ornaments made of copper, bronze, gold, and semi-precious stones such as carnelian and lapis lazuli.
Trade was both local and long-distance. Seals and artefacts found at Mesopotamian sites indicate commercial links between the Indus Valley and the ancient Near East. Goods such as textiles, beads, timber, and grains were exchanged for metals and luxury items. The use of standardised weights and measures further illustrates a sophisticated economic system.

Script and Seals

One of the most distinctive features of Harappa is its collection of inscribed seals made of steatite, often bearing animal motifs and short inscriptions in the Indus script. Although the script remains undeciphered, it is believed to have served administrative or commercial purposes. The seals likely functioned as identifiers for merchants and traders, marking ownership or authenticity of goods.
Common motifs on Harappan seals include the “unicorn”, bull, elephant, and rhinoceros, symbolising religious or cultural significance. The recurring imagery reflects both artistic creativity and standardisation in craftsmanship.

Social and Political Organisation

The uniformity in town planning, brick sizes, weights, and measures across the Harappan cities suggests a highly organised and centralised administration. However, there is little evidence of royal palaces or large monuments, indicating that political authority may have been collective or bureaucratic rather than monarchical.
Social stratification likely existed but was not marked by excessive inequality. Residential structures varied in size, yet there is no evidence of a ruling elite dominating others through grand architectural expressions, unlike in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The Harappans seem to have valued civic order and community welfare.

Religion and Culture

The religious practices of the Harappans are inferred from figurines, seals, and artefacts rather than textual records. Common religious symbols include:

• The Pipal Tree and the Bull, possibly associated with fertility and nature worship.
• Terracotta Mother Goddess figurines, suggesting a fertility cult.
• Proto-Shiva or Pashupati seals, depicting a horned deity seated in a yogic posture, possibly representing an early form of Hindu worship.

The discovery of fire altars and bathing areas, such as those at Kalibangan and Mohenjo-daro, suggest ritualistic activities involving purification and offerings.

Art and Craftsmanship

Harappan art reveals remarkable technical skill and aesthetic sense. The terracotta figurines, bronze sculptures, pottery, and ornamental jewellery display both realism and stylisation. Notable finds include the bronze “Dancing Girl” from Mohenjo-daro and various intricately carved steatite seals from Harappa.
Pottery was wheel-made, often red with black painted designs depicting geometric and natural motifs. Bead-making, shell cutting, and metal casting were advanced crafts, indicating the presence of skilled artisans and specialised production.

Decline of Harappa

The decline of Harappa and the broader Indus Valley Civilisation occurred around 1900 BCE, though the reasons remain debated. Theories include:

• Environmental Changes: Shifts in river courses, particularly the drying up of the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) system, may have disrupted agriculture and trade.
• Flooding and Climate Variability: Repeated floods or droughts could have rendered cities unsustainable.
• Economic and Social Transformation: Decline in long-distance trade and internal administrative breakdown may have weakened urban centres.
• Invasions or Migrations: Some scholars propose incursions by Indo-Aryan groups, though archaeological evidence is inconclusive.

By around 1300 BCE, most Harappan cities had been abandoned, and the population appears to have dispersed into smaller rural settlements. However, many cultural traditions, such as craft production and agricultural practices, continued in later Indian civilisations.