ETA (Basque separatist group)

Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA), translated as “Basque Homeland and Freedom,” was an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organisation founded in Spain in the mid-20th century. For decades, ETA sought to establish an independent Basque state in northern Spain and southwestern France, distinct from both countries. Its campaign, which included bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings, made ETA one of the most active and controversial militant groups in modern European history.

Origins and Early Development

ETA emerged in 1959 from a faction within the Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco, PNV). Dissatisfied with what it perceived as the PNV’s passive approach towards Francoist repression, young Basque activists formed ETA to pursue a more militant strategy for Basque self-determination. Spain at the time was under the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, whose regime harshly suppressed regional identities, languages, and political freedoms.
Initially, ETA functioned as a cultural and political movement dedicated to the preservation of the Basque language (Euskara) and culture. Its early activities included producing propaganda, organising student groups, and advocating for Basque rights. However, by the early 1960s, ETA had begun to adopt violent tactics, believing that armed struggle was essential to achieving independence.

Ideological Foundations

ETA’s ideology combined Basque nationalism, Marxism, and anti-imperialism. The group envisioned the creation of a socialist, independent Basque state encompassing the seven historical Basque provinces: Álava, Gipuzkoa, Biscay, Navarre (in Spain), and Labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule (in France).
ETA justified its violent campaign as a form of national liberation warfare. Its militants viewed Spain and France as occupying powers and considered attacks on state representatives, military officials, and economic targets as legitimate resistance. Over time, however, its actions also claimed the lives of civilians, provoking widespread condemnation and diminishing public support.

Escalation of Violence

ETA’s first confirmed killing occurred in 1968, when it assassinated Melitón Manzanas, a police chief notorious for torturing political prisoners. This act marked the beginning of a prolonged armed campaign. During the 1970s and 1980s, ETA intensified its attacks, targeting police officers, politicians, businessmen, and even journalists.
One of the group’s most infamous operations was the 1973 assassination of Spanish Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco, Franco’s designated successor. The bombing, carried out in Madrid, dramatically altered Spanish politics by removing a key figure of the dictatorship just two years before Franco’s death.
Throughout the transition to democracy in Spain (1975–1982), ETA continued its violence, arguing that the new democratic constitution failed to deliver true autonomy or self-determination. Despite the creation of the Basque Autonomous Community in 1979, with extensive powers and its own parliament, ETA persisted with its armed struggle.

Political and Social Context

ETA operated in a complex political environment. While many Basques supported greater autonomy or independence, the majority rejected violence. The group maintained a political wing, Herri Batasuna (HB), which acted as a legal channel for pro-independence sentiment. HB’s existence allowed ETA to retain a degree of legitimacy among nationalist sympathisers, though its links to terrorism led to periodic bans and prosecutions.
The Spanish state responded to ETA’s violence with both legal and military measures. The creation of special anti-terrorist police units and the passing of stringent anti-terrorism laws characterised this period. During the 1980s, reports surfaced of GAL (Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación), illegal state-sponsored death squads accused of targeting suspected ETA members, including some in France. These operations deepened the cycle of violence and mistrust.

Decline and Ceasefire

From the 1990s onwards, ETA faced mounting challenges. Spanish and French police cooperation improved, leading to the arrest of key leaders and dismantling of operational networks. Public opinion increasingly turned against the group as democratic avenues for Basque political expression expanded.
ETA declared several ceasefires during the 1990s and early 2000s, but most were short-lived. The group’s last major attack occurred in 2006 at Madrid’s Barajas Airport, killing two people despite a declared truce. The act severely damaged the group’s credibility and public support.
In October 2011, ETA announced a permanent cessation of armed activity, and in 2017, it formally disarmed under international supervision. On 3 May 2018, ETA announced its dissolution, bringing an end to nearly six decades of violent struggle.

Victims and Impact

Over the course of its campaign, ETA was responsible for more than 850 deaths and thousands of injuries. Its violence also caused significant psychological and social trauma within Spain, particularly in the Basque Country. Victims included not only members of the security forces but also politicians, judges, and civilians.
Numerous organisations emerged to support victims and promote reconciliation. The Spanish government, along with civil society, has since worked to memorialise the victims while preventing the resurgence of extremist violence.

International and Political Reactions

ETA’s activities drew condemnation from the European Union, United Nations, and numerous governments worldwide. Both Spain and France classified ETA as a terrorist organisation, as did the United States. International cooperation was critical in weakening ETA’s cross-border networks, especially in French Basque territories that once served as sanctuaries for its members.
Despite its dissolution, ETA’s legacy continues to shape Spanish politics. The political successor to Herri Batasuna, now represented by the left-wing coalition EH Bildu, operates legally and advocates for Basque self-determination through peaceful means.