El Salvador

El Salvador (República de El Salvador) is the smallest and most densely populated nation in Central America, bordered by Guatemala, Honduras, and the Pacific Ocean. Its name, meaning “The Saviour” in Spanish, reflects the country’s deep Christian roots. Despite its compact territory, El Salvador has had a significant regional influence, shaped by a history of colonial legacy, civil conflict, and democratic reform. The nation today is a presidential republic, pursuing modernisation and social stability amid continuing economic and security challenges.

Historical Background

El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821, subsequently joining the Central American Federation, from which it seceded in 1839 to become a fully sovereign republic. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the economy revolved around coffee cultivation and export, consolidating the power of an elite class of landowners and perpetuating deep social inequalities.
The twentieth century was marked by military dominance, social unrest, and authoritarianism. Widespread inequality and repression culminated in the Salvadoran Civil War (1980–1992) — a conflict between the military-backed government and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition of leftist guerrilla movements. The war caused approximately 75,000 deaths and extensive displacement.
Peace negotiations mediated by the United Nations resulted in the Chapultepec Peace Accords (1992), which ended the war and restructured El Salvador’s political institutions. The accords introduced demilitarisation, police reform, and the integration of the FMLN as a legitimate political party, ushering in a new democratic era.
Since the end of the civil war, El Salvador has maintained civilian governance, though political and social tensions persist. Challenges such as gang violence, corruption, and mass migration have continued to shape the national landscape. In recent years, the administration of President Nayib Bukele (elected 2019; re-elected 2024) has implemented sweeping security and digital reforms, focusing on crime reduction, economic innovation, and infrastructure development.

Geography

El Salvador covers 21,041 square kilometres, making it the smallest country on the Central American mainland.

• Location: Between Guatemala (west) and Honduras (north and east), with the Pacific Ocean to the south.
• Coordinates: 13°50′ N, 88°55′ W.
• Topography: Volcanic and mountainous, featuring a narrow coastal plain and a central plateau. Known as the “Land of Volcanoes”, it is seismically active, prone to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
• Major peaks: Santa Ana (2,381 m), San Miguel (2,130 m), and Cerro El Pital (2,730 m) — the highest point in the country.

Climate: Tropical, with a rainy season (May–October) and a dry season (November–April). Coastal zones are hot and humid, while highland areas experience cooler temperatures.
Natural resources: Hydropower, geothermal energy, petroleum, and fertile volcanic soils.
Land use (2022):

• Agricultural land: 57.7%
• Forest: 27.7%
• Other: 14.5%

Despite frequent natural hazards, El Salvador boasts striking geographical diversity, from volcanic ranges to tropical coastlines. However, deforestation, soil erosion, and hurricane exposure remain serious environmental concerns.

People and Society

El Salvador’s population was estimated at 6.6 million (2024), making it the most densely populated country in Central America. Urbanisation stands at 75.4%, concentrated around the San Salvador Metropolitan Area (over 1.1 million inhabitants).
Ethnic composition:

• Mestizo: 86.3%
• White: 12.7%
• Indigenous (Lenca, Kakawira, Nahua-Pipil): 0.2%
• Black and others: 0.7%

Languages:

• Official language: Spanish
• Indigenous language: Nawat, spoken by a small minority.

Religion (2023):

• Roman Catholic: 43.9%
• Protestant (mainly Evangelical): 39.6%
• None: 16.3%

Demographic indicators:

• Median age: 29.7 years
• Life expectancy: 75.9 years
• Fertility rate: 2.02 children per woman
• Literacy rate: 90%
• Urban sanitation access: 99.6%

Migration and remittances: Large Salvadoran diaspora communities, especially in the United States, play a vital economic role. Remittances constitute nearly 24% of GDP, underpinning household consumption and national economic stability.

Government and Politics

El Salvador is a presidential republic under the 1983 Constitution, structured around the separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers.

• Capital: San Salvador
• Administrative divisions: 14 departments
• Legal system: Civil law with limited common law influence

Executive:

• President: Nayib Armando Bukele Ortez (since 1 June 2019; re-elected 2024 with 84.7% of the vote)The president serves as both head of state and head of government for a six-year term.

Legislative:

• Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) – 60 members elected by proportional representation for three-year terms.
• In 2024, Bukele’s party, Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas), secured 54 seats, giving it overwhelming control.

Judiciary:

• Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia) – 15 judges serving nine-year terms.
• Lower courts include appellate and municipal courts.

Major political parties: Nuevas Ideas (NI), ARENA, FMLN, GANA, PCN, and Nuestro Tiempo.
Bukele’s government has enacted extensive reforms in digital governance, cryptocurrency, and security. The adoption of Bitcoin as legal tender (2021) made El Salvador the first country in the world to do so. The state of emergency (2022–2025) targeting gang violence has sharply reduced homicide rates but raised international concerns regarding due process and human rights.

Economy

El Salvador maintains a dollarised upper-middle-income economy, driven by services, manufacturing, and remittances. The adoption of the U.S. dollar (2001) stabilised inflation and encouraged investment but constrained fiscal and monetary flexibility.
Key economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $73.96 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $11,700
• Real GDP growth: 2.6%
• Inflation: 0.9%
• Unemployment: 2.9%
• Public debt: 102.2% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Services: 61%
• Industry: 22.4%
• Agriculture: 4.4%

Trade:

• Main exports: Garments, plastics, electrical capacitors, sugar, paper products.
• Main export partners: United States (36%), Guatemala (17%), Honduras (15%), Nicaragua (8%), Costa Rica (5%).
• Main imports: Refined petroleum, textiles, medicines, machinery, and plastics.
• Key import partners: United States (28%), China (15%), Guatemala (11%).

Remittances: 24% of GDP, a crucial economic stabiliser.
The government’s Plan Cuscatlán and Bitcoin City initiatives aim to attract digital investment and boost infrastructure and tourism. Nonetheless, high public debt, limited fiscal revenue, and labour informality remain major constraints.

Environment and Energy

El Salvador faces acute environmental pressures from deforestation, water contamination, and climate vulnerability. Soil degradation and waste disposal are among the nation’s most pressing ecological issues.
Climate: Tropical, with clearly defined wet and dry seasons.
Energy composition (2023):

• Hydroelectric: 31%
• Geothermal: 24.5%
• Solar: 19.1%
• Biomass: 14%
• Fossil fuels: 9.3%

Electricity access: 100% of the population.
The country’s renewable energy strategy makes it a regional leader in geothermal and solar power. El Salvador is a party to the Paris Climate Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Defence and Security

The Armed Forces of El Salvador (FAES) consist of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, with around 25,000 active personnel (2024) and plans to expand to 40,000 by 2026.

• Defence expenditure: 1.2% of GDP
• Primary duties: National defence, counter-narcotics operations, and public security

The National Civil Police (PNC) handles internal law enforcement, often in coordination with the military. Since 2022, the anti-gang campaign has led to mass arrests and a historic decline in homicide rates. Critics, however, cite arbitrary detentions and overcrowded prisons as ongoing human rights concerns.

Culture and Heritage

El Salvador’s culture reflects a fusion of Indigenous Pipil and Lenca traditions with Spanish colonial heritage. The country is known for its vibrant religious festivals, craftsmanship, and cuisine — particularly the pupusa, a stuffed corn cake recognised as the national dish.
The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Joya de Cerén, a pre-Columbian farming village preserved by volcanic ash, provides a rare glimpse into ancient Mesoamerican daily life.