Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt—often described as the cradle of one of humanity’s oldest and most influential civilizations—occupies a pivotal position linking North Africa and Southwest Asia. Anchored by the Nile River, Egypt has served for millennia as a centre of cultural, political, and economic exchange between continents. Today, it stands as Africa’s second-largest economy and the most populous Arab nation, merging an illustrious ancient heritage with modern aspirations for stability, development, and regional leadership.

Historical Background

Egypt’s recorded history stretches back over five millennia, making it one of the world’s most enduring civilizations. Around 3200 B.C., the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh established a powerful centralised state along the Nile Valley. The prosperity of this ancient kingdom relied on the annual flooding of the Nile, which enriched the soil and sustained agricultural abundance.
The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 B.C.), often called the Pyramid Age, produced monumental architecture, including the Pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx. The Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom saw Egypt emerge as a dominant power, advancing in governance, art, mathematics, and engineering.
Foreign domination shaped later eras:

• Persians conquered Egypt in 341 B.C., succeeded by Alexander the Great and his Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 B.C.), whose final ruler, Cleopatra VII, was defeated by Rome, bringing Egypt under Roman rule (30 B.C.).
• The Byzantine Empire maintained control until the Arab conquest (640 A.D.), which introduced Islam and the Arabic language, permanently transforming Egypt’s cultural identity.
• Mamluks, a military elite, ruled from 1250 to 1517, before Egypt became a province of the Ottoman Empire.

The Khedivate of Egypt (19th century) marked a phase of modernisation, culminating in the construction of the Suez Canal (1869), which linked the Mediterranean and Red Seas and positioned Egypt as a global trade artery. Concerned for imperial interests, Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, maintaining effective control until the early 20th century.
Partial independence was achieved in 1922, but true sovereignty came with the 1952 Revolution, when nationalist army officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. Nasser’s era defined modern Egyptian identity—through Arab nationalism, socialist reform, and the nationalisation of the Suez Canal (1956).
His successor, Anwar Sadat (1970–1981), reoriented Egypt’s policy, signing the 1979 peace treaty with Israel and initiating economic liberalisation (Infitah). Following Sadat’s assassination, Hosni Mubarak (1981–2011) presided over three decades of relative stability, marred by authoritarianism and corruption.
The 2011 Arab Spring sparked mass protests, leading to Mubarak’s resignation. A brief democratic interlude under Mohamed Morsi (2012–2013) of the Muslim Brotherhood ended with a military takeover, bringing Abdel Fattah El-Sisi to power. Under Sisi, Egypt has pursued economic reforms, infrastructure expansion, and centralised governance, with re-elections in 2018 and 2023 confirming his extended rule.

Geography and Environment

Covering 1,001,450 square kilometres, Egypt is dominated by desert landscapes, with habitation concentrated along the Nile River Valley and Delta, where over 95% of Egyptians live. The Sinai Peninsula bridges Africa and Asia, making Egypt a strategic crossroads controlling the Suez Canal, one of the world’s busiest maritime routes.
Key geographical features:

• Highest point: Mount Catherine (2,629 m)
• Lowest point: Qattara Depression (–133 m)
• Climate: Desert; extremely hot, dry summers and mild winters
• Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, iron ore, limestone, rare earth minerals
• Land use: 4.1% arable; negligible forest cover

Environmental challenges include desertification, water scarcity, and pollution. The government is implementing irrigation expansion, desalination, and renewable energy initiatives to mitigate these threats. Egypt is also a signatory to the Paris Agreement and participates in regional water management dialogues concerning the Nile Basin.

People and Society

As of 2024, Egypt’s population is estimated at 111.2 million, ranking 15th globally. The vast majority reside within 20 kilometres of the Nile and its delta, while vast deserts remain largely uninhabited.
Demographic composition:

• Ethnicity: 99.7% Egyptian
• Religion: 90% Sunni Muslim, 10% Christian (mostly Coptic Orthodox)
• Language: Arabic (official); English and French widely spoken among the educated
• Urban population: 43% (major cities: Cairo, 22.2 million; Alexandria, 5.6 million)

Socio-economic indicators (2024):

• Median age: 24.4 years
• Life expectancy: 75 years
• Fertility rate: 2.65 children per woman
• Literacy rate: 71%
• Health expenditure: 4.6% of GDP
• Physician density: 0.67 per 1,000 inhabitants
• Access to clean water: 98.8%
• Poverty rate: ~30%

Egypt’s youthful population presents both opportunity and challenge—fueling workforce potential but intensifying demand for jobs, housing, and education. The government prioritises literacy programmes, public health, and women’s empowerment as part of national development policy.

Government and Politics

Egypt is a presidential republic governed by the Constitution of 2014, amended in 2019 to lengthen presidential terms to six years.

• President: Abdel Fattah El-Sisi (since 2014)
• Prime Minister: Mostafa Madbouly (since 2018)

Legislature:

• House of Representatives (596 seats) – directly elected for five-year terms
• Senate (300 seats) – 200 elected, 100 appointed

The dominant political organisation is the Nation’s Future Party (Mostaqbal Watan), closely aligned with the presidency. Political opposition operates under significant restrictions.
The judiciary combines Islamic, civil, and Napoleonic legal traditions. The Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest authority in constitutional matters.
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates, including Cairo, Giza, Alexandria, Luxor, and Aswan.
The national flag—horizontal red, white, and black stripes with the golden Eagle of Saladin—symbolises revolution, peace, and strength.

Economy

Egypt possesses Africa’s second-largest economy, with GDP (PPP) valued at $1.96 trillion (2024). Its Vision 2030 strategy seeks to achieve inclusive growth through diversification, industrialisation, and infrastructure expansion.
Economic structure (2024):

• Agriculture: 13.7%
• Industry: 32.6%
• Services: 48.9%

Major industries: Hydrocarbons, textiles, construction, chemicals, cement, food processing, and tourism.Key exports: Refined petroleum, natural gas, fertilizers, garments, crude oil.Main trading partners: Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Italy, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates.
Egypt’s economy faces high inflation (28.3%), currency depreciation (45.3 EGP/USD), and public debt exceeding 103% of GDP, despite strong energy revenues and canal tolls. Reforms under IMF guidance include subsidy reduction, currency flotation, and foreign investment incentives.
The Suez Canal, contributing billions annually, remains vital to global trade and Egypt’s fiscal stability. The country is also expanding renewable energy projects and exporting surplus electricity across regional networks.

Infrastructure and Energy

Egypt enjoys universal electrification, with an installed capacity of 59.7 GW, largely powered by fossil fuels (87.9%). Renewable sources—hydroelectric (7%), wind (2.8%), and solar (2.2%)—are growing, led by the Benban Solar Park, one of the world’s largest.
The transport network includes 108,000 km of roads, 7,000 km of railways, and 10 major ports, while the Suez Canal continues to underpin Egypt’s logistics sector. Projects such as the New Administrative Capital and Cairo Metro expansion illustrate rapid urban modernisation.

Defence and Security

The Egyptian Armed Forces (EAF), numbering around 450,000 active personnel, constitute Africa’s largest military. The EAF includes the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Air Defence Forces, alongside extensive industrial and commercial enterprises.
Security operations focus on counterterrorism, especially in the Sinai Peninsula, where Egypt combats ISIS-linked groups. The military also participates in UN peacekeeping missions and joint exercises with allies such as the U.S., France, and Saudi Arabia.
Military expenditure averages 0.8% of GDP, with increasing emphasis on naval modernisation, cybersecurity, and defence technology.

Culture and Heritage

Egypt’s cultural legacy is unparalleled, encompassing the Pyramids of Giza, Thebes, Luxor, and the Islamic architecture of Cairo. Its artistic and intellectual traditions continue to shape Arab and African culture.
Modern Egyptian culture flourishes through literature, cinema, and music. Cairo—dubbed the “Hollywood of the Middle East”—is the region’s leading media hub.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites include:

• Memphis and its Necropolis
• Ancient Thebes (Luxor)
• Historic Cairo
• Saint Catherine’s Monastery (Sinai)
• Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale Valley)

The national anthem, “Bilady, Bilady, Bilady” (“My Homeland”), composed by Sayed Darwish, symbolises resilience and unity.

Modern Challenges and Outlook

Egypt’s foremost challenges are rapid population growth, resource scarcity, and economic inequality. With over 111 million citizens reliant on the Nile River, the country faces mounting pressure on water and food supplies—exacerbated by disputes over Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam.