Polity & Governance

84th Constitutional Amendment

The 84th Constitutional Amendment, enacted in 2001, extended the freeze on delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies until after the Census post-2026. Initially imposed in 1976 during the Emergency, the freeze aimed to prevent states with successful population control from losing representation. It amended Articles 81 and 170, governing Lok Sabha and State Assembly composition. The amendment restricts constituency boundary changes or seat redistribution based on Census data only after 2026, maintaining existing political boundaries for over two decades. This affects electoral representation and delays the implementation of demographic-based reforms like womens reservation.

Why in news?

The amendment is very important in current debates on electoral reforms, as delimitation and seat redistribution cannot occur before the 2026 Census, impacting political representation and reservation policies.

Antitrust Remedies in Technology Cases

Antitrust remedies in technology cases involve legal actions to prevent monopolistic practices and promote competition. These remedies can include restrictions on data collection, forced data sharing, or operational changes to limit market dominance. Courts may impose ongoing oversight mechanisms, such as technical committees, to enforce compliance. Such remedies are complex due to the technical nature of digital markets and require continuous monitoring. Historically, antitrust remedies have evolved from structural breaks (like company divestitures) to behavioral remedies involving detailed operational restrictions. Technology antitrust cases often focus on data control, platform neutrality, and interoperability.

Why in news?

The DOJ’s proposal for Google includes antitrust remedies requiring technical oversight to ensure compliance with new operational and data restrictions.

Assam Accord

The Assam Accord, signed in 1985, is a tripartite agreement involving the Government of India, Assam state government, and Assam Movement leaders. It established January 1, 1966, as the cutoff date for identifying foreigners in Assam. Migrants arriving after this date but before March 24, 1971, were eligible for citizenship. The Accord aimed to address illegal immigration from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) while protecting indigenous Assamese culture. It led to legal measures including Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, which implements the Accords provisions concerning citizenship verification and rights in Assam.

Why in news?

The Assam Accord is in the spotlight due to the Supreme Court upholding Section 6A, reinforcing the Accords role in citizenship regulation and immigration issues in Assam.

Assam Accord Clause 5

Clause 5 of the 1985 Assam Accord established January 1, 1966 as the base date for identifying foreigners in Assam and March 24, 1971 as the cutoff for granting citizenship rights. Migrants entering Assam between these dates were excluded from electoral rolls for 10 years before restoration. This clause was a compromise addressing illegal immigration concerns during the Assam Movement, primarily targeting migrants from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). It influenced the creation of Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955 and remains a mainstay of Assam’s citizenship and electoral regulations.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruling in October 2024 cited Clause 5 to uphold the constitutionality of Section 6A and Assam Accord citizenship provisions.

Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988

The Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 prohibits transactions where property is held by one person but paid for by another, often to conceal ownership. It was amended in 2016 to strengthen enforcement, introduce stringent penalties including imprisonment, and allow retrospective confiscation of benami properties acquired before 2016. The Act is enforced by an Initiating Officer, Adjudicating Authority, and Appellate Tribunal. Section 3(2) prescribes jail terms for entering benami transactions. The Act targets black money and illegal property holdings by ensuring transparency in ownership and penalizing concealment.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court in October 2024 recalled its August 2022 order that declared parts of the Act unconstitutional, restoring the Acts provisions for fresh adjudication and allowing challenges to previous orders.

Frontier Regions (FRs)

The Frontier Regions (FRs) were six small administrative units adjacent to the seven tribal agencies of FATA. Unlike the agencies, which had tribal governance structures, the FRs were directly administered by the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa through political agents. The regions served as a transitional zone between settled districts and tribal agencies. Their populations were ethnically Pashtun, but the FRs had different legal and administrative setups compared to the tribal agencies. The FRs were merged into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province along with FATA in 2018, ending their separate administrative status.

Why in news?

The merger of the Frontier Regions with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was part of the broader integration process of FATA, affecting local governance and development policies in these border areas.

Gram Panchayat

A Gram Panchayat is the smallest rural local government unit in India, established under the Panchayati Raj system. It typically governs a single village or a cluster of villages, led by an elected Sarpanch and ward members. Gram Panchayats handle local administration, development projects, and disaster management. They implement government schemes like MNREGA and sanitation programs, mobilize community resources, and maintain village infrastructure. The institution dates back to British India but was constitutionally recognized in 1992 through the 73rd Amendment. Gram Panchayats also play a key role in social justice, including ensuring representation for Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

Why in news?

Gram Panchayats in Odishas coastal districts, including Satabhaya and Jamboo, are actively coordinating evacuation and relief ahead of Cyclone Danas expected landfall on October 24, 2024.

Gram Panchayat-Level Weather Forecasting Initiative

This initiative integrates localized weather forecasting into the e-GramSwaraj platform, providing hourly weather updates specific to individual gram panchayats. It uses advanced meteorological models to deliver data on temperature, rainfall, wind speed, and other parameters at a micro-level. This enables precise agricultural advisories and disaster preparedness. The forecasts support decision-making in rural areas by helping farmers and local officials anticipate weather changes and plan accordingly. It is one of the first efforts to decentralize weather data dissemination directly to village-level governance bodies in India.

Why in news?

The initiative was launched recently to enhance the e-GramSwaraj portal’s capabilities, providing granular weather data to over 2.55 lakh gram panchayats for better governance.

Gram Sabha Resolution

A Gram Sabha resolution is a formal decision taken by the Gram Sabha, the village-level assembly of all adult members in an Indian village. These resolutions are legally under the Forest Rights Act, 2006, requiring community consent for land acquisition and forest clearance. The Gram Sabha has the authority to approve or reject projects affecting tribal and forest lands. Resolutions must be documented and submitted to government authorities for environmental and land-use clearances. They serve as a critical tool for protecting tribal rights and ensuring participatory governance in rural India.

Why in news?

Fake Gram Sabha resolutions allegedly used in Hasdeo Arand villages to secure environmental clearances for coal mining have sparked protests and demands to revoke mining permits.

Greater Malé Connectivity Project (GMCP)

The Greater Malé Connectivity Project is an infrastructure initiative in the Maldives designed to link the capital, Malé, with nearby islands via bridges and causeways. It aims to reduce travel time and enhance economic activities by improving inter-island connectivity. The project includes road and bridge construction and is primarily funded by India under its development cooperation program. The GMCP will enable smoother movement of goods and people, encouraging regional integration and development. It is one of the largest infrastructure projects in the Maldives, targeting improved transport efficiency in a geographically dispersed island nation.

Why in news?

India and Maldives agreed in October 2024 to extend support for the GMCP’s timely completion and to conduct feasibility studies for connecting additional islands, denoting ongoing bilateral cooperation.

Indian Administrative Service (IAS)

The Indian Administrative Service is one of the premier civil services of India, established in 1946. IAS officers are recruited through the highly competitive UPSC examination. They hold key positions in the government, managing policy implementation and administration. The service traces its roots to the British-era Indian Civil Service. IAS officers can serve in various capacities, including district collectors, secretaries in ministries, and heads of public sector undertakings. The cadre system assigns officers to specific states but allows central deputations. IAS officers undergo training at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie.

Why in news?

Ashwini Vaishnaw, a former IAS officer, is currently serving as Indias Minister of Information and Broadcasting, denoting the transition of civil servants into political leadership roles.

Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C)

The Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C) was launched in 2018 under the Ministry of Home Affairs to centralize efforts against cybercrime in India. It comprises seven key components, including the National Cybercrime Threat Analytics Unit, Training Centre, and Research and Innovation Centre. I4C facilitates coordination among law enforcement, offers victim support, and builds capacity through training. It operates an online portal for complaint registration and analysis. The centre also tracks emerging cyber threats such as digital arrests and online scams, playing a critical role in India’s cybersecurity ecosystem.

Why in news?

I4C published data on online scams in India for Q1 2024, denoting losses from digital arrests, trading, investment, and romance scams targeting Indian citizens.

Integrated Data Systems in Indian Governance

Integrated data systems in Indian governance involve combining data from multiple ministries and departments to create unified beneficiary databases. The eShram-One Stop Solution integrates data from 12 Central Ministries/Departments, enhancing coordination and reducing duplication. This approach improves policy implementation, monitoring, and targeted delivery of welfare schemes. Challenges include data privacy, interoperability, and ensuring accuracy. The integration supports evidence-based decision-making and efficient resource allocation, marking a shift towards digital governance and transparency in Indias public administration.

Why in news?

The eShram-One Stop Solutions launch marks the use of integrated data systems to streamline social security benefits for unorganised workers.

Lokniti Research Program

Lokniti is a research program under CSDS, launched in 1997 to study electoral politics and democratic processes in India. It uses survey research methods to analyze voter behavior, political participation, and party dynamics across state of Indias. Lokniti collects data through face-to-face interviews and digital tools, enabling a comprehensive understanding of political trends. The program has been instrumental in documenting the rise of social media in elections and the shifting patterns of voter engagement. It collaborates with universities and policy institutions and publishes reports that influence academic and political discourse in India.

Why in news?

Lokniti’s 2024 survey offered detailed vital information about voter turnout and campaign strategies in Jammu and Kashmir, emphasizing the evolving role of digital outreach in electoral politics.

Maintained Schools

Maintained schools are state-funded schools in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, governed by local authorities or academy trusts. They do not charge tuition fees and follow the national curriculum set by the government. Maintained schools include community schools, foundation schools, voluntary aided and controlled schools, and academies. They serve the majority of school-age children in the UK. Maintained schools are excluded from the Child Student visa scheme, meaning they cannot enroll international students under this visa category. Their governance structures differ from independent schools, with greater government oversight and funding dependency.

Why in news?

Maintained schools are mentioned due to their exclusion from the Child Student visa eligibility, denoting a key distinction in UK education and immigration policy in 2024.

Make America Great Again (MAGA) Movement

The MAGA movement began during Donald Trumps 2016 presidential campaign, emphasizing nationalism, economic protectionism, and conservative social policies. It popularized the slogan “Make America Great Again” as a rallying cry for political change. The movement has evolved into various factions, including moderate and hardline groups like Dark MAGA. MAGA supporters often focus on issues like immigration restriction, deregulation, and opposition to progressive cultural shifts. The movements impact extends beyond politics into media, culture, and social media, shaping conservative discourse in the United States.

Why in news?

The MAGA movement remains influential in the 2024 U.S. presidential election, with factions like Dark MAGA gaining prominence.

Marie-Josee Hogue

Marie-Josee Hogue is a Canadian jurist appointed as the commissioner for the independent public inquiry into foreign interference in Canadian elections. She previously served as a judge on Quebecs Court of Appeal. Hogue has expertise in constitutional and administrative law, which informs her leadership of the inquiry. Her role involves overseeing investigations, hearings, and reporting on foreign interference activities. She is tasked with balancing national security concerns and civil liberties while maintaining transparency. Hogues appointment reflects Canadas commitment to addressing election integrity through judicial oversight.

Why in news?

Marie-Josee Hogue leads the inquiry that released an interim report in early 2024, confirming foreign interference attempts in Canadas 2019 and 2021 federal elections, denoting alleged involvement by Indian operatives.

MeitY (Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology)

MeitY is the Government of India ministry responsible for policy formulation, implementation, and regulation of information technology, electronics, and internet governance. It oversees digital initiatives including the Digital India program and regulates intermediaries under the IT Rules, 2021. MeitY coordinates with law enforcement and other agencies for cybersecurity and data protection. It also promotes indigenous technology development and IT exports. The ministry was formed in 2016 by merging the Department of Electronics and Information Technology with the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologys IT wing.

Why in news?

MeitY issued an advisory under the IT Rules, 2021, urging social media platforms to remove misinformation related to hoax bomb threats disrupting public safety and airline services.

Motor Vehicle Tax Exemption for Caravans in Karnataka

The Karnataka government has introduced a motor vehicle tax exemption specifically for the first 200 registered caravans to encourage caravan tourism. This exemption reduces the initial financial burden on caravan owners, making it more accessible to travel enthusiasts. The policy is part of Karnatakas broader tourism strategy to diversify travel options and promote rural economic development. Such tax incentives are rare in Indias tourism sector and reflect growing recognition of alternative tourism modes. The exemption applies only to newly registered caravans and is intended to stimulate demand for caravan travel within the state.

Why in news?

This tax exemption is a new government initiative to promote caravan tourism in Karnataka, aiming to attract more tourists and support local economies through increased caravan travel.

National Electricity Plan (Transmission) 2024

The National Electricity Plan (Transmission) 2024 is a strategic policy framework introduced to modernize and expand India’s power transmission network. It emphasizes the adoption of advanced technologies like Dynamic Line Rating, smart grids, and energy storage integration. The plan targets maximizing renewable energy transmission capacity, reducing transmission losses, and improving grid reliability. It promotes higher voltage operations and encourages the use of data-driven asset management. The plan also includes provisions for upgrading existing infrastructure to meet future demand and reduce carbon emissions in the power sector.

Why in news?

Launched in October 2024, the plan incorporates DLR technology to boost renewable energy transmission and improve overall grid efficiency across the country.

National Electricity Plan-Transmission (India)

The National Electricity Plan-Transmission is a strategic document published by Indias Central Electricity Authority outlining the countrys electricity transmission infrastructure needs over a multi-year horizon. It includes forecasts of electricity demand, generation capacity additions, and grid expansion plans. The plan integrates emerging technologies like green hydrogen production, renewable energy integration, and electric vehicle charging infrastructure. It guides investments in transmission lines, substations, and grid modernization to ensure reliability and support decarbonization goals. The report also addresses regional disparities and aims to balance supply-demand across states.

Why in news?

The recent National Electricity Plan-Transmission report brought into light the impact of green hydrogen production on electricity demand growth in Tamil Nadu and other state of Indias, signaling a shift in energy planning priorities.

National Health and Family Planning Commission

The National Health and Family Planning Commission was a Chinese government agency that existed from 2013 to 2018. It combined the responsibilities of health administration and family planning, including birth control policies. The commission managed public health, medical services, and population control measures. It played role in implementing the one-child policy until its relaxation. The agency was dissolved in 2018, with its duties transferred to the newly formed National Health Commission, which separated family planning from health policy to focus more on healthcare reform and public health challenges.

Why in news?

The National Health and Family Planning Commission was mentioned as the predecessor to the NHC, which recently issued new obesity treatment guidelines.

National Health Commission (NHC) of China

The National Health Commission (NHC) was established in 2018, succeeding the National Health and Family Planning Commission. It is responsible for formulating national health policies, overseeing medical services, and managing public health initiatives across China. The NHC coordinates disease prevention, health promotion, healthcare reform, and emergency response systems. It supervises a network of hospitals and healthcare institutions nationwide. The commission also collaborates with international bodies like the World Health Organization (WHO) and plays a central role in health data collection and policy enforcement. The NHC is instrumental in epidemic control and improving health standards in China.

Why in news?

The NHC released Chinas first standardized guidelines for obesity diagnosis and treatment, addressing the countrys increasing obesity rates and associated health risks.

National Highways & Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited (NHIDCL)

NHIDCL is a government-owned company under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, established in 2014 to develop highways and infrastructure in border and hilly areas. It focuses on strategic connectivity projects in difficult terrains, including northeastern states and Jammu and Kashmir. NHIDCL undertakes construction, maintenance, and management of national highways, tunnels, and bridges. It often partners with private firms through contracts and special purpose vehicles. NHIDCL plays a key role in national security by improving mobility in conflict-prone and remote regions.

Why in news?

NHIDCL retendered the Z-Morh tunnel project contract, which was awarded to APCO Infratech, denoting ongoing infrastructure development efforts in Jammu and Kashmir.

National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF)

The NIRF is an Government of India ranking system launched in 2015 to rank higher education institutions across the country based on parameters like teaching, learning, research, and perception. It covers universities, colleges, engineering, management, pharmacy, architecture, and medical institutions. Rankings are published annually by the Ministry of Education. The framework uses quantitative and qualitative metrics, including research output, faculty quality, and graduation outcomes. The top 50 NIRF-ranked foreign universities mentioned in the policy refers to foreign institutions recognized globally and ranked among Indias top universities by this framework.

Why in news?

The Higher Education Incentive Policy-2024 offers benefits to the top 50 NIRF-ranked foreign universities to encourage their establishment of campuses in Uttar Pradesh.

National Medical Commission (NMC)

The National Medical Commission (NMC) was established in 2020, replacing the Medical Council of India. It regulates medical education and practice in India, overseeing undergraduate and postgraduate medical courses, accreditation of medical colleges, and professional ethics. The NMC introduced reforms to improve transparency and standardization, including the Annual Self-Declaration for PG courses. It also governs licensing exams like the National Exit Test (NEXT) for medical graduates. The commission aims to modernize medical education and ensure uniform standards across Indias diverse medical institutions.

Why in news?

The NMC mandated the Annual Self-Declaration for postgraduate medical colleges starting 2024 to enhance oversight and quality control in medical education.

National People’s Congress (China)

The National People’s Congress (NPC) is China’s highest legislative body, consisting of nearly 3,000 delegates elected every five years. It meets annually in Beijing to pass laws, approve budgets, and set national policy. Though largely seen as a rubber-stamp parliament, the NPC has legal authority to enact laws like the Anti-Secession Law. It plays a key role in legitimizing major policy decisions and constitutional amendments. The NPC Standing Committee handles legislation between sessions. Its decisions reflect the Communist Partys directives, making it important institution in Chinas political system.

Why in news?

The NPCs 2005 passage of the Anti-Secession Law remains very important in China-Taiwan relations and is referenced amid current geopolitical developments.

National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)

The NPPA is an Government of India agency established in 1997 under the Department of Pharmaceuticals. It regulates the prices of pharmaceutical drugs to ensure availability and affordability. The authority fixes and revises the ceiling prices of essential medicines and monitors the prices of non-scheduled drugs. NPPA has the power to take punitive action against manufacturers and suppliers violating price regulations. It plays a key role in balancing public health needs and pharmaceutical industry interests in Indias healthcare system.

Why in news?

NPPA recently approved a 50% price hike for Desferrioxamine 500 mg injection to maintain its production viability and availability.

National Population Register (NPR)

The National Population Register (NPR) is a comprehensive identity database of usual residents in India, maintained by the Ministry of Home Affairs. It collects demographic and biometric data to create a national registry linked to the census and other government records. The NPR helps in policy planning, security, and welfare distribution. It is updated regularly using data from local registrations of births, deaths, and migrations. The NPR database is distinct from but related to the Aadhaar system. Privacy and data security measures govern the collection and use of NPR information.

Why in news?

The NPR database is updated using data from the CRS mobile app, launched in 2024 to digitize birth and death registrations.

NITI Aayog

NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) is a policy think tank of the Government of India established in 2015 to replace the Planning Commission. It focuses on cooperative federalism, sustainable development, and encouraging innovation. NITI Aayog uses data-driven approaches and partnerships with states to promote economic growth. It publishes reports and policy papers on sectors including agriculture, health, and infrastructure. The body has advisory roles in technological adoption, including agriculture modernization. It operates under the Prime Minister’s Office and coordinates with ministries to implement strategic reforms and development initiatives across India.

Why in news?

NITI Aayogs recent paper emphasizes technologies like high-density tissue culture planting as key drivers of accelerated horticulture growth in India.

Non-Disclosure Agreements in Digital Collaboration

Non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) are legal contracts used in digital collaborations to protect sensitive information shared between parties. NDAs restrict disclosure of proprietary data, trade secrets, or confidential project details, ensuring privacy and competitive advantage. In digital public goods development, NDAs can limit transparency and openness, affecting the sharing of knowledge and code. They are common in public-private partnerships to safeguard intellectual property and maintain trust among stakeholders. NDAs play a critical role in balancing openness with commercial and security interests in digital infrastructure projects.

Why in news?

NDAs are mentioned as factors that may limit the openness of digital public goods within public-private partnerships promoted by the GDC.

One-man Commission

A one-man commission is a type of inquiry commission headed by a single commissioner rather than a panel. It is appointed for focused, swift investigations on specific issues. The sole commissioner has powers under the Commissions of Inquiry Act to summon witnesses, collect evidence, and submit reports. This format is chosen for efficiency and clarity in findings. One-man commissions have been used in India for various matters including corruption probes, social issues, and policy reviews. They can operate with less procedural complexity compared to multi-member commissions.

Why in news?

Telangana government appointed a one-man commission under the Commissions of Inquiry Act to study SC sub-classification for reservations.

Opposition Coalition in Venezuela

The opposition coalition in Venezuela is a political alliance formed to challenge the ruling party led by Nicolás Maduro. It comprises multiple parties and civil society groups united by shared goals of democratic reform and free elections. The coalition has faced systematic repression, including arrests, media blackouts, and electoral manipulation. It has gained support domestically and internationally, especially from countries critical of Maduros regime. The coalitions strategy includes participating in elections despite allegations of unfair conditions. Its leaders often face exile or imprisonment, reflecting Venezuelas polarized political environment.

Why in news?

The opposition coalition backed Edmundo Gonzalez Urrutia in the 2024 presidential election, contesting Maduros victory and denoting ongoing political tensions.

Optical Scan Voting Systems

Optical scan voting systems use paper ballots marked by voters, which are then scanned by machines to record votes electronically. The scanners read marks made by pen or pencil, or printed by devices like BMDs. These systems enable quick tallying and can produce detailed audit logs. They allow for manual recounts by retabulating paper ballots, supporting election transparency. Optical scanners vary in design, with some featuring precinct-level or central-count scanning. They are widely used globally due to their balance of efficiency and verifiability. Scanner calibration and ballot design are critical to preventing errors.

Why in news?

Optical scan systems are part of hybrid voting technology discussions comparing US and Indian election methods, focusing on auditability and tampering concerns.

Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) Card

The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card grants lifelong visa-free travel and certain economic and educational privileges to foreign nationals of Indian origin, except political rights and property ownership in agricultural land. Introduced in 2005, OCI is not dual citizenship but a form of long-term residency. OCI holders have been treated differently from Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) under various laws, including FEMA. The 2021 amendment to FEMA equalized OCI cardholders rights with foreign nationals in economic and financial matters, reversing previous privileges. OCI cards are issued by the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs and require renunciation of Indian citizenship.

Why in news?

The 2021 FEMA amendment affected OCI cardholders economic and financial rights, causing confusion about their status relative to NRIs and foreign nationals.

Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)

Panchayati Raj Institutions constitute a three-tier system of rural local governance in India, consisting of Gram Panchayats (village level), Panchayat Samitis (block level), and Zila Parishads (district level). Established constitutionally through the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, PRIs aim to decentralize power and promote local self-governance. They are responsible for implementing government schemes, managing resources, and encouraging rural development. PRIs function as a link between the government and rural citizens, facilitating participatory democracy. Their effectiveness depends on transparency, capacity building, and digital tools like e-GramSwaraj to improve governance outcomes.

Why in news?

PRIs are central to implementing the e-GramSwaraj platform and the new weather forecast dissemination, reinforcing decentralized governance in rural India.

Panchayats

A panchayat is a traditional local self-government body in Indian villages, responsible for administration and development activities. Originating from ancient governance systems, modern panchayats operate as elected councils under the Panchayati Raj system, established by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment in 1992. Panchayats manage local infrastructure, social welfare, and economic development programs. They serve as the lowest tier of government, promoting participatory democracy. Panchayats are divided into three levels – village, intermediate (block), and district. They play important role in decentralizing governance and ensuring direct public involvement in decision-making at the grassroots level.

Why in news?

Panchayats host the newly created entrepreneurship helpdesks to facilitate MSME development in rural and semi-urban Kerala.

Parliamentary Committee on Chemicals and Fertilisers

The Parliamentary Committee on Chemicals and Fertilisers is a standing committee in the Indian Parliament tasked with oversight of the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilisers. It examines policies, programmes, and legislation related to chemical industries, fertiliser production, and pharmaceuticals. The committee reviews issues like production capacity, import dependency, and regulatory frameworks. It submits reports with recommendations to Parliament. Members include MPs from both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The committee plays a key role in shaping government strategy on industrial self-reliance and consumer protection in sectors like APIs and fertilisers.

Why in news?

The committee is currently examining India’s efforts to achieve self-sufficiency in API production and the regulatory challenges in controlling spurious and fake medicines.

Performance-Based Incentives in Local Governance

The XV FC introduced performance-based incentives to encourage better utilization of funds by Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies. These incentives reward local bodies that demonstrate effective financial management, improved service delivery, and transparency in governance. Criteria include timely submission of audited accounts, implementation of core services, and innovation in local administration. This approach aims to create accountability and motivate local governments to optimize resource use. Performance assessments are conducted annually, influencing subsequent fund allocations. The system represents a shift from unconditional grants to results-oriented funding in India’s fiscal federalism framework.

Why in news?

The ongoing release of XV FC grants incorporates performance-based incentives, impacting the allocation and utilization of funds by local bodies in states like Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.

PM-Gati Shakti National Master Plan

The PM-Gati Shakti National Master Plan is an Government of India initiative launched in 2021 to create a unified platform for infrastructure projects across multiple ministries. It integrates transport, logistics, and industrial infrastructure development to reduce delays and costs. The plan uses a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based digital platform to coordinate projects in roads, railways, ports, and airports. It emphasizes multimodal connectivity and aims to increase freight capacity and speed. The plan supports economic growth by enhancing supply chain efficiency and reducing logistical bottlenecks nationwide.

Why in news?

The Errupalem-Namburu railway line project aligns with the PM-Gati Shakti plan, reflecting its role in integrated transport infrastructure development approved in October 2024.

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Political Action Committees (PACs) are organizations that raise and spend money to elect or defeat political candidates. They can contribute directly to candidates or engage in independent expenditures. PACs are regulated by the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and must disclose donors and expenditures. Unlike Super PACs, traditional PACs have contribution limits from individuals and organizations. PACs often represent business, labor, or ideological interests. Their influence varies by election cycle, with some spending millions to sway voter opinions and legislative priorities. PACs have existed since the 1940s but gained prominence with the rise of campaign finance laws.

Why in news?

The America PACs $75 million spending in 2024 marks the continuing influence of PACs in US elections and their role in shaping political outcomes.

Political Exile of Venezuelan Opposition Figures

Political exile has become a common fate for Venezuelan opposition leaders due to government repression. Exiles often relocate to countries like Spain, Colombia, and the United States. This phenomenon has accelerated since the 2010s amid crackdowns on dissent and electoral fraud accusations. Exiled politicians continue to influence Venezuelan politics through advocacy, international lobbying, and media engagement. Their exile puts stress on the risks of political participation under Maduros administration. It also shapes the Venezuelan diaspora’s role in global awareness and humanitarian efforts related to Venezuelas crisis.

Why in news?

Edmundo Gonzalez Urrutias exile to Spain in 2024 exemplifies the broader trend of Venezuelan opposition figures fleeing political persecution.

Political Surveillance through Youth Organizations in China

Youth organizations like the CYL are integral to Chinas political surveillance system. They engage in monitoring young peoples political attitudes, social activities, and foreign interactions. This surveillance helps the Communist Party maintain ideological control and preempt dissent. The CYLs role includes gathering intelligence on individuals overseas experiences and family abroad, feeding into broader state security databases. This approach combines political indoctrination with social monitoring, creating a pipeline for loyal party members and a mechanism to detect foreign influence early. The system reflects Chinas emphasis on comprehensive control over its population, starting with youth.

Why in news?

The CYLs expanded role in surveillance and data collection marks Chinas focus on controlling youth and foreign influence amid rising geopolitical tensions.

Pratyush Sinha Committee

The Pratyush Sinha Committee was constituted in 2010 to review and streamline the cadre allocation policy of IAS officers. It introduced stricter norms for inter-cadre transfers and emphasized the importance of officers serving in their original cadres to maintain administrative efficiency and state representation balance. The committee recommended limiting officers’ ability to switch cadres post-allocation, except under exceptional circumstances. These guidelines have been referenced repeatedly in cadre disputes, including the 2024 Deepak Khandekar Committee review, to ensure uniformity and central oversight in cadre management.

Why in news?

The Deepak Khandekar Committees 2024 decisions were based on the Pratyush Sinha Committee guidelines, influencing the rejection of IAS officers requests to stay in non-original cadres.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in Animal Welfare

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) allows individuals or organizations to seek judicial intervention in matters affecting the public, including animal welfare. PILs have been instrumental in India for enforcing laws against cruelty to animals and promoting humane treatment. Courts can direct government agencies to implement policies or take action based on PILs. Animal welfare PILs often address issues like stray animal population control, prevention of cruelty, and habitat protection. These litigations have led to landmark rulings that balance animal rights with human interests, influencing legislation and urban animal management strategies across India.

Why in news?

The Delhi High Court issued directives following a PIL filed by the Dhananjay Sanjogta Foundation to control stray animals affecting vulnerable populations, illustrating the ongoing use of PILs in animal welfare governance.

Rashtrapati Bhavan

Rashtrapati Bhavan is the official residence of the President of India, located in New Delhi. It was designed by British architect Sir Edwin Lutyens and completed in 1929. The building covers an area of approximately 200,000 square feet with 340 rooms. It features a blend of Western and Indian architectural styles and includes the Mughal Gardens, open to the public during spring. Rashtrapati Bhavan is a symbol of Indian democracy and governance. It is often used for state ceremonies and official functions, including national awareness campaigns.

Why in news?

Rashtrapati Bhavan was illuminated in red as part of the Act4Dyslexia campaign to promote awareness of dyslexia across India.

Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India

The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India is a government office responsible for conducting the decennial Census of India and maintaining the Civil Registration System. It operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The office coordinates data collection across all states and union territories, ensuring uniformity and accuracy. It also oversees demographic surveys and population studies. The Registrar General manages large-scale data integration efforts, including linking census data with other governmental databases. The agency plays a key role in policy planning and resource allocation by providing reliable demographic statistics.

Why in news?

The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India developed the CRS mobile app to facilitate electronic registration of births and deaths, supporting the Digital India initiative for better governance.

Section 18-G of the IDRA

Section 18-G is a provision within the Industrial Disputes (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1947 (IDRA), originally aimed at regulating industrial disputes and conditions in specific industries. This section was interpreted in the context of the sugar industry to clarify the extent of central versus state control over industrial regulation. It does not grant the central government exclusive authority over the sugar industry, allowing states to exercise legislative powers concurrently unless state laws conflict with central legislation. The provision plays a key role in defining the federal balance in industrial regulation in India.

Why in news?

Section 18-G was central to a recent Supreme Court case where states claimed concurrent authority to regulate industrial alcohol, using this section to support their taxation rights alongside central laws.

Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act

Section 230 is a provision of the U.S. Communications Decency Act of 1996 that provides immunity to online platforms from liability for user-generated content. It allows websites to moderate content without being treated as publishers. The law is central to the operation of social media and internet platforms. It has been subject to increasing political and legal scrutiny due to concerns about misinformation, censorship, and platform accountability. The provision is often debated in the context of free speech and regulation of online content. It is sometimes called the 26 words that created the internet.

Why in news?

The Chamber of Progress has been involved in discussions and lobbying efforts related to reforming Section 230, emphasizing the need for balanced regulation that protects innovation while addressing content moderation challenges.

Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India

The Seventh Schedule divides legislative powers between the Centre and states into three lists – Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. The State List, including Entry 8, contains subjects on which only states can legislate. The Schedule was designed to balance federal and state powers post-independence. It has been amended multiple times, notably by the 42nd Amendment in 1976. Entries in the lists are often subjects of judicial interpretation, affecting governance and federal relations. The Schedule is part of Part XI of the Constitution, covering relations between Centre and states.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruling on Entry 8 marks ongoing debates about the division of powers under the Seventh Schedule, especially regarding taxation of industrial products like alcohol.

Smoke-Free Task Force of Balanga City

The Smoke-Free Task Force is a local enforcement body established by Balanga City to implement and monitor compliance with the tobacco control law. It conducts regular inspections, public education, and coordinates with local authorities to ensure adherence to the ban on tobacco sales, use, and promotion within the designated zones. The task force represents a novel governance model at the city level in Southeast Asia, focusing on proactive enforcement and community engagement. Its creation marked a shift from national to localized tobacco control enforcement mechanisms.

Why in news?

The Smoke-Free Task Force is a key component in the successful implementation and enforcement of Balanga City’s pioneering tobacco control measures.

Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) in Infrastructure Projects

A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) is a legal entity created for a specific project or purpose, isolating financial risk. In infrastructure, SPVs manage funding, construction, and operation of projects like metro rail systems. SPVs enable joint ownership by multiple governments or agencies and allow for structured financing, including loans and grants. They provide a clear framework for loan repayments and risk management. SPVs often have a moratorium period before repayments begin, facilitating project stabilization. This model is common in Indian urban transport projects to streamline execution and finance.

Why in news?

CMRL functions as an SPV for Chennai Metro, now directly receiving loans from international agencies after a policy shift by the Union Cabinet for Phase 2 financing.

Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) in Urban Redevelopment

A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) is a legally separate entity created for a specific project or purpose, often to isolate financial risk. In urban redevelopment, SPVs like DRPPL are commonly used to manage complex projects involving multiple stakeholders. SPVs can hold land, raise capital, and enter contracts independently. They help separate project liabilities from parent companies or governments. SPVs often have defined ownership structures, such as the 80%-20% split between private and government entities seen in DRPPL. This model facilitates public-private partnerships in large-scale urban infrastructure and housing projects.

Why in news?

DRPPL, an SPV, is central to the Dharavi redevelopment, illustrating the use of SPVs in managing large-scale urban renewal projects involving both private and government stakeholders.

State Funding of Elections in India

State funding of elections involves government financial support to political parties or candidates to reduce their dependence on private donations. The Indrajit Gupta Committee recommended partial funding to recognized parties to create a level playing field and reduce corruption risks. Unlike full funding models in some countries, Indias proposed system focused on supplementing party resources rather than replacing private funding entirely. This concept remains controversial due to concerns about misuse of public funds and challenges in monitoring. No comprehensive state funding system has been implemented in India, though partial reimbursements of election expenses exist under the Representation of the People Act.

Why in news?

State funding is debated as a solution to curb the rising costs and illegal cash flows in the 2024 Indian general elections.

Suburban Political Realignment in the American South

The American South has experienced a political realignment in suburban areas, shifting from Republican dominance to increased Democratic support. This change is driven by growing ethnic diversity, younger populations, and urban sprawl. Counties like Gwinnett in Georgia exemplify this trend, where immigration and demographic shifts have altered voting patterns. This realignment affects state and national elections, contributing to the South’s evolving political landscape. The phenomenon is linked to broader social changes, including increased educational attainment and changing economic structures in suburban communities.

Why in news?

The political realignment in suburban Georgia, including Gwinnett County, is crucial in determining the outcome of the 2024 presidential election due to its swing state status.

Third-Party Inspection Agencies in Indian Highway Services

Third-party inspection agencies are independent organizations authorized to assess and rate facilities along Indian National Highways under the Humsafar Policy. These agencies conduct frequent audits of service providers, especially those with ratings below 3 stars, to ensure compliance with quality and safety standards. Their evaluations cover hygiene, service availability, environmental practices, and infrastructure. The inspections help maintain uniformity and accountability in highway amenities. These agencies operate under contracts with the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways and are selected through transparent bidding processes to maintain impartiality and credibility in monitoring.

Why in news?

Third-party inspection agencies have become crucial with the October 2024 launch of the Humsafar Policy to enforce quality standards on National Highway amenities.

University Grants Commission (UGC)

The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory body in India responsible for coordinating, determining, and maintaining standards of higher education. Established in 1956, it provides recognition to universities and allocates funds. The UGC plays a key role in policy formulation, quality assurance, and promoting research. It also issues guidelines and regulations for curriculum development, accreditation, and faculty development. The UGC has introduced various initiatives, including leadership development, to enhance educational quality. It works closely with other bodies like NAAC and AICTE to ensure higher education standards across India.

Why in news?

The UGC recently recommended the integration of cohort-based leadership programmes as part of its guidelines to improve leadership development in Higher Education Institutions.

Unlawful Interference in Civil Aviation

Unlawful interference refers to acts that threaten the safety and security of civil aviation, such as hijacking, sabotage, and terrorism. ICAO defines it as any act that jeopardizes the safety of aircraft, passengers, or airport facilities. Annex 17s primary objective is to prevent unlawful interference by establishing security measures worldwide. This concept drives international cooperation and legislation to detect, deter, and respond to threats. The term encompasses emerging threats including cyber-attacks on aviation infrastructure, requiring continuous updates to security frameworks to mitigate risks.

Why in news?

The term unlawful interference is central to recent updates in Indias aviation security measures, prompted by hoax threats aimed at disrupting civil aviation operations.

Untied and Tied Grants under XV FC

The XV FC grants are divided into untied and tied categories. Untied grants provide Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies with flexible funding to be used across various sectors without restrictions. Tied grants are earmarked for specific core services such as sanitation, water management, and solid waste disposal. These grants are released in two instalments annually to ensure steady financial flow. The distinction allows local bodies to address urgent needs while meeting mandated service delivery goals. Monitoring mechanisms include transparency requirements and performance-based incentives to improve fund utilization efficiency.

Why in news?

The first instalment of XV FC grants for 2024–25 has been disbursed, enabling local bodies in Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan to enhance rural and urban infrastructure projects.

Untied Grants to Panchayats

Untied grants are funds provided by the central or state governments to Panchayats without specific conditions on their use. These grants enable Panchayats to prioritize spending based on local needs across subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule. Untied grants promote flexibility and responsiveness in rural governance, allowing Panchayats to address urgent or unplanned issues. The use of untied grants requires accountability mechanisms like audits and social audits to ensure transparency. These grants are a key financial tool in decentralization, supporting Panchayats autonomy in implementing development programs.

Why in news?

Untied grants are brought into light in recent policy discussions on Panchayat finances in Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, emphasizing local discretion in governance and rural development.

Uttar Pradesh Ordinance on Illegal Foreign Food Workers

The Uttar Pradesh ordinance targets individuals working in food service without legal authorization or valid documentation. It aims to prevent misuse of identity and ensure accountability in food safety. The law mandates penalties and possible closure of establishments employing illegal foreign workers. It addresses challenges in traceability during food contamination investigations by requiring all food handlers to be legally identifiable. This ordinance is part of broader consumer protection and hygiene efforts in Indias most populous state, emphasizing legal documentation for food workers to uphold public health standards.

Why in news?

The Uttar Pradesh government introduced strict penalties for food establishments employing illegal foreign citizens to improve food safety and consumer protection under new ordinances.

Village Land Act of 1999

The Village Land Act of 1999 is a Tanzanian law that governs land tenure in rural areas, emphasizing customary land rights and community-based management. It categorizes land into village, reserved, and general land, with village land held communally or individually under customary tenure. The Act mandates village councils to prepare land-use plans and issue CCROs. It aims to protect local land rights without forcing conversion to freehold titles, balancing modernization with tradition. The law also addresses gender equity in land ownership, step in a country where customary practices often marginalize women.

Why in news?

The Acts provisions underpin the CCRO system, which is currently struggling with low uptake and implementation challenges affecting rural landholders, particularly women and widows.

Virtual Court Hearings

Virtual court hearings use video conferencing technology to conduct judicial proceedings remotely. They became widespread during the COVID-19 pandemic to maintain court operations amid lockdowns. Virtual hearings can include real-time video, audio, and digital document sharing. Challenges include ensuring security, maintaining procedural fairness, and verifying participant identities. Some courts use specialized platforms with encryption and digital signatures. Virtual hearings have accelerated the adoption of e-justice systems worldwide, with some jurisdictions considering permanent integration post-pandemic. However, concerns about accessibility and digital divides persist.

Why in news?

Digital arrest scams mimic virtual court hearings, using fake platforms and impersonation to extort money from victims, exploiting the rise of remote judicial processes.

Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)

The VVPAT system generates a physical paper printout of the vote cast on an electronic voting machine, allowing voters to verify their choice before final submission. It serves as an independent audit trail for election officials to cross-check electronic results. VVPAT printers are not standard on all DRE machines; their inclusion varies by jurisdiction. The paper trail is typically stored securely and can be manually recounted if electronic results are disputed. VVPAT was introduced to address transparency and trust issues after electronic voting controversies, improving election integrity by providing tangible proof of votes.

Why in news?

VVPAT systems are brought into light in ongoing election debates over electronic voting security and the need for verifiable paper records in the US and India amid contested election outcomes.

Z-Morh Tunnel

The Z-Morh tunnel is a strategically important road tunnel in Jammu and Kashmir, designed to provide all-weather connectivity to the Kashmir Valley. It is located on the Srinagar-Leh highway and is intended to bypass the treacherous Zojila Pass, which is often closed in winter due to heavy snowfall. The tunnel is approximately 6.5 kilometers long and is part of the broader Srinagar-Leh road infrastructure upgrade. It reduces travel time and improves year-round access to Ladakh. The project has faced multiple delays due to difficult terrain, weather conditions, and security issues.

Why in news?

The Z-Morh tunnel project is nearing completion under APCO Infratech after delays, but security incidents involving militant attacks have impacted the construction process.

Economy & Banking/Finance

Rainbow Papers Case

The Rainbow Papers case is legal dispute in India involving the priority of claims during insolvency resolution under the IBC. The case questioned whether statutory dues such as VAT should be paid before financial creditors, challenging the established priority that favors secured lenders. The Supreme Court ruled that statutory dues are not to be paid ahead of financial creditors during insolvency resolution, reinforcing the primacy of the Committee of Creditors. This judgment has created debate around the treatment of government dues and has led to demands for legislative amendments to clarify claim hierarchies.

Why in news?

The Rainbow Papers case has been cited in recent insolvency disputes, sparking discussions on the legal hierarchy of claims and the need to resolve conflicts between government dues and creditor rights.

Sriperumbudur Industrial Hub

Sriperumbudur is a town in Tamil Nadu, known for its rapidly growing industrial zone, hosting major automotive and electronics manufacturing units. It is home to plants of global companies like Samsung, Ford, and Hyundai. The area has become a focal point for labor movements due to its large workforce in both formal and informal sectors. Sriperumbudurs industrial growth accelerated in the 1990s following liberalization policies, making it employment center in South India. The region frequently witnesses labor disputes and strikes, reflecting tensions between workers and multinational corporations.

Why in news?

The Samsung plant in Sriperumbudur is currently the site of a major workers strike led by the newly formed Samsung India Workers Union under CITUs leadership.

Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB)

The Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) is the highest statutory expert body in India for technical matters related to drugs and pharmaceuticals. It advises the Central Government on drug standards, safety, and efficacy. The board is constituted under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, and includes experts from pharmacology, medicine, and regulatory affairs. DTAB reviews and recommends changes related to drug approvals, clinical trials, and quality control. Its decisions influence the framing and amendment of drug regulations, including the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules. DTAB meetings are held periodically to address emerging drug-related issues nationally.

Why in news?

DTAB recently recommended that all antibiotics be included under the definition of new drugs in the NDCT Rules, 2019, aiming to strengthen regulations against antimicrobial resistance in India.

Regulatory Convergence in Medical Device Oversight

Regulatory convergence refers to the process by which different countries’ medical device regulations become more aligned over time. It involves adopting common standards, guidelines, and practices to reduce duplication and facilitate international market access. This process helps regulators rely on each others assessments and inspections, speeding up approvals and improving safety. Convergence is driven by forums like the IMDRF and involves harmonizing technical requirements, quality management systems, and post-market surveillance. It supports innovation by reducing regulatory barriers and encourages global collaboration among regulatory authorities.

Why in news?

Indias IMDRF affiliate membership supports its regulatory convergence efforts, promoting alignment with global medical device standards and easing international trade and cooperation.

Switzerlands Policy Shift on Neutrality

Switzerland has maintained a policy of neutrality for over two centuries, avoiding military alliances and conflicts. However, in October 2024, it joined the European Sky Shield Initiative, marking a major shift toward collective defense cooperation. This change was influenced by Russias invasion of Ukraine, which heightened security concerns in Europe. Switzerlands participation in ESSI allows access to shared air-defense resources while maintaining its non-aligned stance in other areas. This nuanced approach reflects evolving security dynamics and Switzerlands adaptation to increased regional threats without fully abandoning its neutrality tradition.

Why in news?

Switzerlands accession to ESSI in October 2024 is notable as it represents departure from its historical neutrality in response to geopolitical tensions in Europe.

Police Commemoration Day

is observed annually on October 21 across India to honor police personnel who died in the line of duty. It was officially designated in 1960 by the Annual Conference of IGPs to remember the officers killed in the 1959 Hot Springs incident. The day involves ceremonies, wreath-laying, and tributes nationwide, reinforcing the valor and sacrifice of police forces. It raises awareness about the risks faced by law enforcement and promotes public respect for police service. The day is distinct from Police Martyrs Day, which is observed on different dates in some states.

Why in news?

October 21 marks Police Commemoration Day, reaffirmed by the Annual Conference of IGPs to honor police personnel killed in the 1959 Hot Springs ambush.

National Investigation Agency (NIA) of India

The National Investigation Agency is Indias central counter-terrorism law enforcement agency, established in 2009 under the NIA Act following the 2008 Mumbai attacks. The NIA has nationwide jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute offenses related to terrorism, secessionism, and threats to national security. It operates independently of state police forces and can take over investigations from local authorities. The agency is empowered to probe cases involving cross-border terrorism, insurgency, and radicalization. Its officers receive specialized training in intelligence gathering, forensic analysis, and counter-terrorism operations. The NIA frequently collaborates with international agencies on transnational security issues.

Why in news?

The NIA arrested Faizul Rahman in October 2024 after taking over the investigation from Chennai Police regarding a conspiracy to spread disaffection and secessionism in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

Economy & Banking/Finance

Navi Mumbai International Airport (NMIA)

Navi Mumbai International Airport is a greenfield airport project located near Panvel, Maharashtra. It aims to alleviate congestion at Mumbais Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport. The airport is designed with a capacity to handle 60 million passengers annually initially, expandable to 80 million. It features two parallel runways and state-of-the-art passenger and cargo terminals. The project is a joint venture between the Airports Authority of India and the Maharashtra government. The airport is expected to boost regional connectivity and economic growth in the Navi Mumbai and Mumbai Metropolitan Region.

Why in news?

The successful landing of an IAF C-295 on the South runway is part of the ongoing testing and development phase of Navi Mumbai International Airport ahead of its operational launch.

Venture Capital Fund for Space Technology

The ₹1,000-crore fund is a government initiative to boost Indias space technology startups. It plans to support about 40 firms over five years, investing between ₹10 crore and ₹60 crore depending on the stage of the company. Early-stage startups receive smaller investments, while late-stage companies can get up to ₹60 crore. The fund aims to fill the gap in risk capital in the Indian space sector, reducing the need for companies to move abroad. Deployment is phased, beginning with ₹150 crore in 2025-26 and concluding with ₹100 crore in 2029-30.

Why in news?

The Union Cabinet approved this fund to stimulate private sector growth in Indias space industry and increase the domestic space economys value by 2033.

Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (API)

Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients are the biologically active components in medicines responsible for their therapeutic effects. APIs can be chemical substances or biological products like enzymes or hormones. They undergo rigorous quality control to ensure efficacy and safety. APIs constitute the core of drug formulations, with excipients serving as fillers. The global API market is segmented by source – synthetic, semi-synthetic, and biological. Production involves complex chemical synthesis or biotechnological processes. Regulatory agencies mandate strict compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) to prevent contamination and ensure purity. API production is capital-intensive and requires advanced technology.

Why in news?

The Parliamentary Committee on Chemicals and Fertilisers is reviewing India’s push for API self-sufficiency and regulatory measures against spurious medicines.

Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC)

The APMC is a statutory body established by state of India governments to regulate agricultural markets. It mandates that farmers sell produce only in state-designated markets known as mandis. APMC controls market fees, licensing, and trade rules to ensure fair prices. The system varies by state, with some allowing private mandis and contract farming. APMC has faced criticism for restricting direct sales and competition, leading to reforms. It primarily handles perishable and non-perishable crops, impacting rural economies and supply chains across India. The system aims to protect farmers but often limits market freedom.

Why in news?

The RBI paper recommends increasing private mandis to enhance competition and transparency in selling perishable crops, aiming to reduce price volatility caused by inefficiencies in the existing APMC system.

BRICS Bridge

The BRICS Bridge is a cross-border payments system under development by BRICS nations—Brazil, Russia, China, and South Africa. It enables direct financial transactions between member states, bypassing the U.S. dollar and Western networks like SWIFT. The system uses central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) and blockchain technology to enhance transaction security and speed. It aims to reduce costs and avoid Western sanctions. This initiative supports a parallel global financial infrastructure, promoting economic integration within BRICS and reducing dependence on Western-controlled systems. It reflects growing geopolitical shifts in global finance.

Why in news?

The BRICS Bridge gained prominence during the 2024 Kazan summit, denoting efforts to counter Western financial dominance and assist sanctioned or dollar-restricted countries within the bloc.

Disinflation

Disinflation is the economic phenomenon where the rate of inflation slows down, meaning prices rise more slowly but do not fall. It is distinct from deflation, which is a sustained decrease in the general price level. Disinflation often occurs when demand weakens, supply chains improve, or central banks implement policies to moderate inflation without causing price drops. It can stabilize economies by preventing runaway inflation but remains vulnerable to external shocks like geopolitical crises. Central banks use disinflation to manage inflation expectations and avoid wage-price spirals that can exacerbate inflation.

Why in news?

The IMFs October 2024 report marks that the current global disinflation is mainly due to the unwinding of pandemic supply shocks and labor market improvements, rather than interest rate increases.

Evergreening Loans

Evergreening loans involve providing new loans to borrowers to repay existing ones, preventing the original loans from being classified as non-performing assets (NPAs). This practice conceals the real financial condition of lenders by continuously rolling over debts without assessing the borrower’s repayment ability. It is commonly used to hide bad loans and delay default recognition. Evergreening increases hidden financial risks and can artificially inflate asset quality. Regulators globally discourage this practice. In India, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has issued repeated warnings to banks and NBFCs against evergreening.

Why in news?

The RBIs recent review uncovered evergreening in gold loans via top-ups and roll-overs, prompting stricter loan appraisal directives and policy reviews to curb this practice.

Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs)

Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) are entities such as mutual funds, pension funds, insurance companies, and hedge funds that invest in a countrys financial markets but are based outside that country. FIIs play important role in emerging markets by providing liquidity and capital. Their investment decisions are influenced by global economic trends, policy changes, and market valuations. FIIs are subject to regulatory frameworks in host countries, including limits on ownership and reporting requirements. Their large-scale buying or selling can impact stock prices and exchange rates, making them key players in cross-border capital flows.

Why in news?

FIIs are selling Indian stocks to capitalize on the improved valuations and growth prospects in Chinese equities, following the Hang Seng Indexs sharp rise in October 2024.

Frictional Liquidity

Frictional liquidity is the temporary mismatch between the demand and supply of money in financial systems due to timing differences in payments and settlements. It arises naturally in banking as funds flow in and out at different times during the day. Central banks use tools like open market operations and repo/reverse repo transactions to manage this liquidity and stabilize money markets. Unlike structural liquidity, frictional liquidity does not indicate a fundamental economic imbalance but reflects routine transactional delays. It plays important role in short-term interest rate volatility and overall monetary policy implementation.

Why in news?

The RBI Governor brought into light frictional liquidity management as key to maintaining stable money market interest rates in India amid evolving economic growth and inflation conditions.

Global Bond Indices

Global bond indices are benchmarks that track the performance of various government and corporate bonds worldwide. They guide institutional investors in portfolio allocation and risk management. Examples include the Bloomberg Barclays Global Aggregate Index and the FTSE World Government Bond Index. Inclusion criteria often involve market size, liquidity, creditworthiness, and accessibility. Bonds in these indices gain visibility, attracting foreign investment. Indices are rebalanced periodically to reflect market changes. The presence of a country’s bonds in these indices signals international acceptance and financial market maturity, influencing borrowing costs and capital inflows.

Why in news?

Indian Government Bonds are being gradually included in global bond indices, enhancing their global visibility and attracting foreign investment inflows by March 2025.

Global Tax on Billionaires

The global tax on billionaires is a proposed fiscal measure aimed at taxing the net wealth of ultra-rich individuals across countries. It targets wealth above a certain threshold, typically in the billions of dollars, to generate funds for climate finance and sustainable development. The tax would require international cooperation through treaties or organizations like the IMF to enforce compliance and avoid tax evasion. No country currently applies such a tax globally, making it a pioneering concept in international tax law. The tax aims to reduce wealth inequality and close financing gaps in global climate action efforts.

Why in news?

Brazil proposed this tax at COP29 to fund climate initiatives, receiving backing from the UN Secretary-General and several nations amid ongoing debates on equitable climate finance.

Government Securities Buyback

A government securities buyback is a debt management tool where the government repurchases bonds from the market before maturity to reduce outstanding debt and manage liquidity. This process can lower interest expenses and influence bond yields. Buybacks are conducted through auctions managed by the central bank, inviting competitive bids from bondholders. They are typically executed when market conditions, such as low yields, make repurchasing debt cost-effective. Buybacks can improve liquidity for banks by returning cash in exchange for bonds. The practice was revived in India in 2024 after a six-year hiatus to optimize fiscal management.

Why in news?

The government securities buyback auction in October 2024 saw bids worth ₹24,934.4 crore accepted by the RBI, denoting an active phase in India’s debt and liquidity management efforts.

Great Tightening

The Great Tightening is a global monetary policy phase starting in 2021-2022, marked by aggressive interest rate hikes by major central banks including the Federal Reserve, ECB, and Bank of England. It aimed to combat post-pandemic inflation by reducing demand. This phase is unique for its synchronized global scale, unlike typical isolated tightening cycles. Effects include increased debt servicing costs, financial market volatility, and sovereign debt stress. It risks slowing global economic growth and is considered macroeconomic event due to its coordinated, worldwide approach to inflation control.

Why in news?

The IMFs October 2024 report marks the Great Tightening as a major downside risk to global economic growth, warning about its prolonged adverse impacts on economies worldwide.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders during a specific period. It includes consumption, investment, government spending, and net exports. GDP is a primary indicator of economic health and growth. There are three approaches to calculating GDP – production, income, and expenditure. GDP per capita is used to compare living standards across countries. Real GDP adjusts for inflation, while nominal GDP does not. GDP figures influence policy decisions, investment flows, and international economic comparisons.

Why in news?

Fiscal deficit is expressed as a percentage of GDP to evaluate the government’s borrowing relative to economic output in the 2024-25 fiscal year.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF)

Gross Fixed Capital Formation measures the net increase in physical assets such as machinery, buildings, and infrastructure within an economy during a specific period. It excludes financial assets and inventories. GFCF is a vital economic indicator reflecting investment levels that influence future productive capacity and economic growth. It is calculated by subtracting disposals and depreciation from the gross investment in fixed assets. GFCF data helps analyze sectoral investment trends, especially in manufacturing and infrastructure. It is a key component of GDP calculation under the expenditure approach. Variations in GFCF often signal shifts in economic confidence and expansion plans.

Why in news?

India’s GFCF surged by over 77% in 2022-23 compared to 2021-22, denoting a strong post-pandemic recovery in capital investment, especially in the manufacturing sector.

Gross Value Added (GVA) in Agriculture

Gross Value Added (GVA) in agriculture is an economic metric that measures the value of agricultural output minus the value of inputs used, calculated at constant prices to remove inflation effects. It includes four subsectors – crops, livestock, fisheries, and forestry. Unlike production volume, GVA accounts for price fluctuations and input costs, providing a more accurate economic contribution of agriculture. GVA growth rates indicate sectoral performance over time. It is widely used for policy formulation and investment decisions. The methodology aligns with national accounting standards and helps compare agricultural productivity across regions and periods.

Why in news?

The NITI Aayog report marks GVA growth trends in Indian agriculture, emphasizing livestock and fisheries as key growth drivers between 2014 and 2024.

Hong Kong Port

The Hong Kong Port is one of the busiest container ports globally, ranking consistently in the top five by throughput. It serves as a major transshipment hub linking East Asia with global markets. The port features advanced container terminals, extensive logistics infrastructure, and deep-water berths capable of accommodating large vessels. It handles millions of TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) annually, facilitating international trade. The ports efficiency and strategic location have been vital to Hong Kongs economic development. It operates under a landlord port model, with private operators managing terminal operations under government oversight.

Why in news?

Hong Kongs port remains a key asset supporting its status as a global financial and trading hub, despite regional geopolitical tensions.

Hydropower Exports in Bhutan

Bhutans hydropower sector accounts for over 30% of its GDP and contributes approximately 40-50% of government revenue. The countrys mountainous landscape and plentiful rivers provide ideal conditions for hydropower generation. Bhutan primarily exports electricity to India, which is its largest trading partner in this sector, earning foreign exchange. Key projects include the 1,200 MW Mangdechhu hydropower plant, commissioned to increase capacity. Hydropower revenues have been critical for Bhutans economic stability and funding social development initiatives, underpinning its overall growth strategy.

Why in news?

Bhutans economy is projected to grow 7.2% in FY25, driven by rising hydropower exports and tourism, as per the World Banks October 2024 report.

Index of Core Industries (ICI)

The Index of Core Industries (ICI) tracks production in eight foundational sectors – coal, crude oil, natural gas, refinery products, fertilizers, steel, cement, and electricity. These sectors together represent about 40% of Indias industrial output. The ICI is released monthly by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and serves as an early indicator of industrial growth and economic trends. Its base year was revised to 2011-12 to reflect updated economic conditions. Movements in the ICI typically precede changes in the broader Index of Industrial Production (IIP), making it critical for economic policy and analysis.

Why in news?

The ICI dropped to a nine-month low in August 2024, marking its third consecutive monthly decline, indicating a slowdown in Indias core industrial sectors.

Indexation

Indexation is a tax mechanism that adjusts the purchase price of an asset to account for inflation, thereby reducing the taxable capital gain when the asset is sold. It primarily applies to long-term capital gains on certain assets such as real estate and debt mutual funds. The adjustment uses a government-published Cost Inflation Index (CII), which changes annually based on inflation rates. This method prevents taxpayers from being taxed on inflationary gains rather than real gains. Indexation benefits are not available for short-term capital assets or equity shares but are crucial for long-term asset holders to reduce tax liability.

Why in news?

The 2024-25 Budget introduced a choice allowing taxpayers selling property acquired before July 23, 2024, to opt for tax with indexation at 20% or without indexation at a lower 12.5%, changing the capital gains tax regime.

Indias Core Sector

Indias core sector comprises eight key industries – coal, crude oil, natural gas, refinery products, fertilizers, steel, cement, and electricity. These sectors are crucial as they contribute nearly 40% to the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) and act as a barometer for economic health. The performance of the core sector is closely monitored for policy-making and economic forecasting. Growth or contraction in these industries directly affects overall industrial growth and infrastructure development. Variability in these sectors can influence inflation, employment, and GDP growth rates.

Why in news?

Indias core sector output contracted in August 2024, influenced by the base effect and sector-specific performance variations, raising concerns about industrial growth momentum.

Input Tax Credit (ITC)

Input Tax Credit (ITC) is a mechanism under the Goods and Services Tax (GST) system that allows businesses to reduce the tax paid on inputs from their output tax liability. It prevents the cascading effect of taxes, where tax is paid on tax. ITC applies only to goods and services used in the course of business and is subject to specific conditions under the CGST Act. Section 17(5) restricts ITC on certain items, including motor vehicles and immovable property used for personal purposes. Proper documentation and compliance are essential for claiming ITC accurately.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruled that real estate companies can claim ITC on construction costs for commercial buildings intended for renting or leasing, affecting GST charges and investment decisions in real estate.

Maharashtras Manufacturing Sector

Maharashtras manufacturing sector contributed 15% to the state’s GVA in 2019-20, dropping to 14.5% in 2023-24. This decline occurred even as the sector employed more workers, indicating reduced productivity or value addition per worker. The sector includes industries like textiles, chemicals, automotive, and electronics. Maharashtra is India’s leading manufacturing hub, with Mumbai and Pune as key centers. The sector’s shrinking share suggests a shift toward services or other industries. This trend reflects broader economic structural changes, including technology adoption and supply chain shifts impacting traditional manufacturing.

Why in news?

The manufacturing sectors declining GVA share amid rising employment signals changing economic dynamics in Maharashtra, crucial for policy and electoral considerations in 2024.

Main Refinancing Rate

The main refinancing rate is the primary interest rate set by the European Central Bank for lending to commercial banks on a weekly basis. It serves as a benchmark for short-term interest rates across the eurozone and directly influences borrowing costs for banks and consumers. This rate forms the middle of the ECBs interest rate corridor, flanked by the deposit and marginal lending rates. Changes in this rate signal monetary policy stance shifts and affect inflation, employment, and economic growth. It is reviewed monthly by the ECBs Governing Council.

Why in news?

The main refinancing rate remains a focal point in ECB policy discussions following recent deposit rate cuts aimed at managing inflation and economic stability.

Malawi

Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa with a population exceeding 20 million. It relies heavily on agriculture, especially tobacco exports. Malawi has experienced repeated debt distress due to external borrowing and economic shocks. It is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union. Malawis economy is vulnerable to climate change, impacting food security. The country has implemented debt relief programs under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. It faces challenges in healthcare funding, particularly for HIV/AIDS, partly due to its debt burden.

Why in news?

Malawi is in debt distress, affecting its ability to finance essential health services, including HIV/AIDS programs, as reported in a 2024 UN financial assessment.

Marginal Lending Rate

The marginal lending rate is the interest rate at which banks can borrow funds overnight from the European Central Bank against collateral. It acts as the upper bound of the ECBs interest rate corridor, higher than the main refinancing and deposit rates. This rate provides emergency liquidity to banks facing short-term funding shortages. The marginal lending rate influences interbank lending rates and overall money market stability. It is typically set above the main refinancing rate by a fixed margin, adjusted periodically based on economic conditions.

Why in news?

The marginal lending rate is relevant amid ECB’s recent monetary policy adjustments, maintaining the corridor that guides short-term eurozone interest rates.

Marine Products

Marine products encompass fish, shellfish, and other sea-derived food items harvested from oceans, seas, and coastal waters. India is a major exporter of marine products, including shrimp, fish fillets, and cephalopods. The marine sector contributes substantially to Indias foreign exchange earnings, with exports targeting markets in the US, Japan, and Europe. Indias marine fisheries are diverse, with both capture fisheries and aquaculture playing vital roles. Sustainable fishing practices and export quality standards are increasingly emphasized to meet international regulations. Marine products also include processed items such as frozen seafood and ready-to-eat meals.

Why in news?

Marine products are among the Indian exports to Canada, contributing to the trade growth noted during diplomatic strains in October 2024.

Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)

MSMEs are defined by the Government of India based on investment in plant and machinery or equipment and annual turnover. They form a critical sector contributing approximately 30% of Indias GDP and employ over 110 million people. MSMEs cover manufacturing, services, and trading sectors. The government provides various schemes for MSMEs including credit guarantees, subsidies, and marketing assistance. MSMEs are considered vital for economic growth, innovation, and export promotion. Their decentralized nature supports inclusive development, especially in rural and semi-urban areas, by creating jobs and encouraging entrepreneurship.

Why in news?

Keralas entrepreneurship helpdesks aim to assist MSME entrepreneurs with registration, funding, and compliance to boost local economic activity.

Middle-Income Trap

The middle-income trap describes a development plateau where countries experience slowed growth after reaching middle-income status, failing to transition to high-income economies. This occurs due to rising wages, loss of competitive advantage in manufacturing, and insufficient innovation or productivity gains. Countries in this trap struggle to upgrade industries or move into higher value-added sectors. South Korea escaped this trap through chaebol-led innovation, export diversification, and government policies promoting technology adoption. Many emerging economies face this challenge, making it a central focus of development economics and policy reforms aimed at sustainable growth beyond middle-income thresholds.

Why in news?

India is exploring strategies inspired by South Koreas chaebols to avoid the middle-income trap and accelerate its economic development through innovation and targeted state-business collaboration.

Monthly Economic Review

The Monthly Economic Review is a publication by the Department of Economic Affairs that provides detailed analysis of Indias macroeconomic indicators, including industrial performance, consumer demand, fiscal trends, and external sector developments. It serves as an early indicator of economic health and policy shifts. The review compiles data from various government sources and international agencies, offering forecasts and policy recommendations. It is widely used by policymakers, economists, and investors to gauge economic momentum. The review often precedes major economic reforms, making it a critical tool for anticipating government actions.

Why in news?

The October 2024 edition of the Monthly Economic Review reported moderation in industrial growth and urban demand, informing the governments economic stance.

Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs)

Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) are international financial institutions formed by multiple countries to provide financing and technical assistance for development projects. Examples include the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and African Development Bank. MDBs pool resources from member countries and issue bonds to fund infrastructure, health, education, and climate initiatives. They operate with a mandate to reduce poverty and promote sustainable growth. MDBs apply rigorous fiduciary and environmental standards and coordinate with governments and donors. They play a key role in managing Financial Intermediary Funds and mobilizing global capital for development challenges.

Why in news?

MDBs like the World Bank manage the newly approved FIF for Ukraine, coordinating international donor contributions and ensuring fiduciary oversight.

NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development)

NABARD, established in 1982, is an apex development bank in India focused on agriculture and rural development. It provides credit and refinancing to rural financial institutions, supports rural infrastructure projects, and promotes sustainable rural livelihoods. NABARD also conducts surveys like NAFIS to assess rural financial inclusion. It plays a key role in implementing government schemes such as the Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) and the Watershed Development Programme. NABARDs initiatives aim to improve credit flow to farmers, promote microfinance, and support rural non-farm activities, thereby strengthening the rural economy and reducing poverty.

Why in news?

NABARD released the 2021-22 NAFIS survey results, revealing important trends in rural financial inclusion and economic conditions post-pandemic.

NAFIS (NABARD All India Financial Inclusion Survey)

NAFIS is a comprehensive rural survey conducted by NABARD since 2016-17, covering over 100,000 rural households across India. It collects detailed data on income, expenditure, debt, landholding, credit access, and insurance coverage. NAFIS is unique in tracking longitudinal trends in rural financial inclusion and economic conditions, including post-COVID-19 impacts on non-food expenditure and institutional lending. The surveys granularity allows analysis of household-level rural financial behavior, making it a critical tool for policy and research on rural economies. It is the only large-scale dataset focusing specifically on rural financial inclusion and economic dynamics.

Why in news?

The 2021-22 NAFIS results brought into light rising farmer incomes, increased debt, shrinking landholdings, and improved access to financial services in rural India.

National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI)

The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) is an umbrella organization for retail payments in India, established in 2008. It operates key payment systems like UPI, IMPS, and AEPS. NPCI is a not-for-profit entity promoted by Indian banks and regulated by the Reserve Bank of India. It enables interoperable payments across banks and financial institutions, supporting digital transactions nationwide. NPCI’s platforms have processed billions of transactions annually, contributing to India’s digital economy. It also develops security protocols and standards for payment systems, ensuring safe and efficient financial services.

Why in news?

NPCI is involved in the implementation and management of ABPS, which became mandatory for MGNREGS wage payments from January 2024.

Navi Mumbai International Airport

Navi Mumbai International Airport is a planned greenfield airport project located in Maharashtra, intended to relieve congestion at Mumbais existing airport. The airport is designed to handle large passenger and cargo volumes with modern infrastructure and sustainable technologies. It is expected to be a major hub for regional connectivity and economic growth. The project includes advanced features like automated baggage systems and smart security. The airport will serve the Navi Mumbai region and boost trade, tourism, and employment opportunities in the area once completed.

Why in news?

The Navi Mumbai International Airport is under development by AAHL as its first greenfield airport project, marking expansion in Indias airport infrastructure.

NEOM Project

NEOM is a planned $500 billion futuristic megacity in northwestern Saudi Arabia, announced in 2017 as part of Vision 2030. It will span 26,500 square kilometers along the Red Sea coast, incorporating smart city technologies, renewable energy, and advanced biotech. NEOM aims to attract global talent and investment, featuring sectors like robotics, artificial intelligence, and tourism. The project is governed by a special authority independent of Saudi Arabias traditional administrative structures. NEOMs design includes THE LINE, a linear city concept with no cars or streets, focused on sustainability and minimal environmental impact.

Why in news?

NEOM continues to be a show at the Future Investment Initiative, showcasing Saudi Arabias commitment to innovation and attracting international partnerships in technology and infrastructure development.

Net Fixed Capital Formation

Net Fixed Capital Formation (NFCF) represents the net additions to fixed assets after accounting for depreciation during an accounting period. It differs from GFCF by excluding the value of assets worn out or scrapped. NFCF indicates the actual increase in productive capacity rather than gross investment. It can show whether an economy is expanding its capital stock or merely replacing old assets. A high NFCF relative to GFCF suggests robust investment growth. NFCF figures are critical for assessing long-term economic health and sustainability of growth, especially in capital-intensive industries.

Why in news?

India’s NFCF rose dramatically by 781.6% to Rs 2.68 lakh crore in 2022-23, underscoring boost in net capital investment post-pandemic.

Net Promoter Score (NPS)

The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is a customer loyalty metric developed in 2003 by Fred Reichheld and Bain & Company. It measures customers’ likelihood to recommend a company’s products or services on a scale from 0 to 10. Respondents are categorized as Promoters (9-10), Passives (7-8), or Detractors (0-6). The NPS is calculated by subtracting the percentage of Detractors from Promoters. It is widely used across industries for its simplicity and correlation with revenue growth. NPS has been adapted for employee engagement and brand perception studies beyond customer satisfaction. Bain holds proprietary rights to NPS methodology.

Why in news?

Bain & Companys recent GenAI adoption report likely utilized NPS to assess enterprise user satisfaction and loyalty trends related to AI technologies.

New Development Bank (NDB)

The New Development Bank was established in 2014 by the BRICS countries to finance infrastructure and sustainable development projects primarily in emerging economies. Its headquarters are in Shanghai, China. The bank aims to complement existing international financial institutions like the World Bank and IMF. It provides loans, guarantees, equity investments, and other financial instruments. The NDB initially had a subscribed capital of $50 billion, equally contributed by BRICS members. It focuses on projects in clean energy, transportation, water management, and urban development. The bank also supports regional development and economic cooperation among BRICS nations.

Why in news?

BRICS countries are collaborating on health and economic issues, with the NDB playing a key role in funding development projects that address shared challenges, including cancer care infrastructure.

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) are financial institutions that provide banking services without meeting the legal definition of a bank. They cannot accept demand deposits but can offer loans and credit facilities, including gold loans. NBFCs are crucial in Indias financial sector, especially for underserved markets. They often operate in rural and semi-urban areas, providing credit to individuals and small businesses. Unlike banks, NBFCs are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India but have different capital requirements and lending norms. Their market share in gold loans is , reflecting their role in alternative lending.

Why in news?

NBFCs dominate the gold loan sector, which saw a 26% increase in sanctions in Q1 FY25, prompting RBI regulation to control bad debt risks.

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India

NBFCs are financial institutions that provide banking services without holding a banking license. They offer loans, asset financing, and investment products but cannot accept demand deposits. NBFCs play important role in Indias financial ecosystem, especially in underserved markets. They are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India under specific guidelines. NBFCs contribute to sectors like gold loans, vehicle financing, and personal lending. Their growth has been driven by flexible lending models and customer reach. However, NBFCs face challenges such as liquidity risks and regulatory compliance, which impact their stability and operations.

Why in news?

The FIDC, representing NBFCs, brought into light a spike in gold loan disbursements, triggering RBI scrutiny of NBFC accounting and regulatory practices in Q1 FY25.

Nutraceutical Industry

The nutraceutical industry focuses on products derived from food sources that provide extra health benefits beyond basic nutrition, including dietary supplements, functional foods, and herbal products. It bridges nutrition and pharmaceuticals, often utilizing bioactive compounds from plants. The industry is growing rapidly worldwide due to increasing health awareness and chronic disease prevalence. In India, traditional medicinal plants from regions like J&K are valuable raw materials. Regulatory frameworks vary, with emphasis on safety and efficacy. The sector contributes to preventive healthcare and wellness economies.

Why in news?

J&Ks bio-resources are noted for their potential in the nutraceutical industry, as brought into light by Dr. Jitendra Singh in discussions on health and economic development.

Operational Expenditure (Opex)

Operational expenditure (opex) includes the day-to-day costs required to run a business or government function, such as salaries, utilities, rent, and maintenance. Unlike capex, opex does not result in the acquisition of long-term assets. Opex is fully deducted in the accounting period in which it occurs, affecting short-term profitability. Managing opex efficiently is crucial for operational sustainability. In government budgets, opex covers ongoing expenses like subsidies, administrative costs, and social services. The balance between opex and capex spending reflects fiscal priorities and economic strategies.

Why in news?

Opex is contrasted with rising capex in Indias economic planning, with RBI emphasizing the importance of capex for long-term growth over routine opex spending.

Owners Equivalent Rent (OER)

Owners Equivalent Rent (OER) estimates what homeowners would pay to rent their own homes, representing a major part of housing costs in the CPI-U. It is calculated using rental prices of similar properties, not actual mortgage payments. OER accounts for about 23% of the total CPI-U weight, making it the largest single component. This measure reflects housing cost inflation without including property taxes or maintenance costs. OER changes tend to lag behind actual home prices due to slower rental market adjustments. It was introduced in the 1980s to better capture housing cost inflation for homeowners.

Why in news?

OERs rise is a key driver of housing inflation shown in the latest CPI-U report amid tightening rental markets.

Oxfams Role in Economic Inequality Advocacy

Oxfam is an international confederation of 20 NGOs working in over 90 countries to alleviate poverty and inequality. Founded in 1942, it focuses on economic justice, tax fairness, and social protection policies. Oxfam collaborates with organizations like DFI to produce research and advocacy reports that influence global economic policies. It campaigns for fairer tax systems and increased social spending to reduce wealth concentration. Oxfams data and advocacy have been instrumental in shaping international debates on inequality, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

Why in news?

Oxfam partnered with DFI in the October 2024 report denoting global failures to meet inequality reduction commitments.

Paddy Procurement System in Punjab

The paddy procurement system in Punjab involves government agencies purchasing rice paddy from farmers at a fixed minimum support price (MSP). The system relies on intermediaries like arhtis for collection and sale. Procurement centers and warehouses are used to store the grain before it is processed or distributed. Delays in lifting procured paddy from warehouses cause storage congestion and reduce cash flow for intermediaries and farmers. The system is critical for stabilizing farmer incomes but is vulnerable to logistical inefficiencies and bureaucratic delays, especially during peak harvest seasons.

Why in news?

The system is under strain due to delayed lifting of last years paddy stocks, causing procurement backlogs and disrupting the purchase of new crops from farmers in 2024.

Payment Service Providers (PSPs)

Payment Service Providers (PSPs) are third-party companies that facilitate electronic payments between merchants and customers by enabling transactions through various methods like cards, bank transfers, or digital wallets. PSPs act as intermediaries, ensuring secure transaction processing, fraud prevention, and compliance with financial regulations. They often provide APIs for integration with e-commerce platforms and mobile apps. PSPs can include banks, fintech firms, and specialized payment gateways. In India, non-bank PSPs have grown rapidly with the rise of digital payments, playing a critical role in expanding financial inclusion and supporting government initiatives like UPI (Unified Payments Interface).

Why in news?

The Reserve Bank of Indias directive on accessibility mandates compliance from banks and non-bank PSPs to improve payment system usability for persons with disabilities.

Peoples Bank of China (PBOC)

The Peoples Bank of China (PBOC) is Chinas central bank, established in 1948. It manages monetary policy, currency issuance, and financial regulation. The PBOC controls the RRR, interest rates, and foreign exchange reserves. It plays important role in implementing government economic strategies and maintaining financial stability. Unlike some central banks, the PBOC operates under the State Council, China’s cabinet. It also oversees the digital yuan pilot programs, aiming to modernize payments. The PBOC’s actions influence global markets due to Chinas economic size and interconnectedness.

Why in news?

The PBOCs recent RRR cut is part of a stimulus effort to increase liquidity and encourage lending to targeted sectors, influencing global investment flows.

Pre-Booking Strategy in Ride-Hailing Services

Pre-booking in ride-hailing allows customers to schedule rides in advance, ensuring vehicle availability during peak demand periods. This strategy helps optimize fleet utilization and reduce cancellations, improving user satisfaction. Pre-booking systems rely on algorithms that predict demand patterns and allocate vehicles accordingly. It is especially effective in markets with fluctuating demand, such as airport transfers or event attendance. Pre-booking also allows companies to manage driver shifts and maintenance schedules better. In electric vehicle fleets, it assists in planning charging cycles without disrupting service availability, enhancing operational efficiency and customer trust.

Why in news?

BluSmarts focus on pre-booking services enhances ride reliability and availability during peak hours in Bengaluru, addressing common challenges in urban ride-hailing markets.

Pre-seasonal Sugarcane

Pre-seasonal sugarcane is a 15-month duration variety planted in Maharashtra, typically between February and April. It matures earlier than adsali but later than suru cane. This variety is cultivated to optimize the sugarcane crushing schedule by filling the gap between suru and adsali harvests. Pre-seasonal cane requires moderate rainfall and is somewhat sensitive to monsoon fluctuations. It plays a strategic role in balancing sugarcane supply and demand during the crushing season, contributing to continuous sugar production in Maharashtra’s sugar industry.

Why in news?

Pre-seasonal cane is part of the three main sugarcane planting schedules influencing Maharashtras drought-impacted sugarcane crushing timeline in 2024-25.

Predicate Offenses in Money Laundering

Predicate offenses are criminal activities whose proceeds are laundered through financial systems to conceal their illegal origin. Common predicate offenses include drug trafficking, corruption, fraud, human trafficking, and terrorism financing. Identifying predicate offenses is crucial for enforcing anti-money laundering laws, as they form the basis for investigations and prosecutions. In India, the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) mandates tracing the proceeds of these offenses. Effective tracking of predicate offenses, supported by data from systems like CCTNS, enhances the ability of agencies to link financial crimes to underlying criminal acts, enabling stronger legal action.

Why in news?

CCTNSs integration with law enforcement databases helps track predicate offenses linked to money laundering cases, aiding the Enforcement Directorates investigations brought into light in recent financial regulatory reports.

Private Creditor Participation in Sovereign Debt Relief

Private creditors include commercial banks, hedge funds, and bondholders holding sovereign debt issued on international markets. Their involvement in debt restructuring is voluntary and challenging due to the lack of formal mechanisms compelling participation. Private creditors often demand higher recoveries, complicating negotiations. In many sovereign debt crises, their reluctance delays or limits debt relief. The G20 Common Framework encourages private creditor engagement to ensure comprehensive restructuring, but their participation remains limited. Private creditor claims can exceed official debt in some countries, making their cooperation essential for effective debt resolution.

Why in news?

Private creditor participation is a key bottleneck in the G20 Common Frameworks efforts to provide timely and comprehensive debt relief to heavily indebted African countries.

Probability Distribution of Growth Forecasts

A probability distribution of growth forecasts represents the range and likelihood of various economic growth outcomes. Instead of a single expected growth rate, it shows all possible growth rates and their probabilities, often depicted as a bell curve or other statistical distributions. The lower tail of this distribution indicates rare but severe negative growth scenarios. This approach allows economists to assess not only the most probable outcomes but also the risks of extreme downturns. It is essential for risk management, stress testing, and economic policy formulation, especially in volatile or uncertain environments.

Why in news?

The probability distribution of growth forecasts is referenced in discussions about downside tail risk, emphasizing uncertainty in economic projections and potential severe contractions.

Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme

The Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme was launched by the Government of India in 2020 to boost domestic manufacturing and reduce import dependence. It offers financial incentives based on incremental production and sales in specified sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and white goods. The scheme aims to enhance competitiveness, create jobs, and attract investments. PLI incentives are calculated as a percentage of turnover over a base year, typically spanning five to six years. It encourages global and domestic companies to scale up production in India, supporting the governments “Make in India” initiative.

Why in news?

The PLI schemes application window was reopened specifically for white goods manufacturers due to low initial uptake, aiming to increase manufacturing output and investment in this sector.

Public Financial Management System (PFMS)

The Public Financial Management System (PFMS) is an online platform developed by the Government of India to monitor and track fund disbursement and expenditure in real time. Launched in 2009, it integrates with various government schemes to ensure transparent and efficient financial management. PFMS supports direct benefit transfers, budget planning, and audit processes. It connects with banks, treasuries, and government departments to enable seamless fund flow and accountability. The system also generates reports for monitoring and evaluation, reducing delays and leakages in fund utilization across central and state government projects.

Why in news?

PFMS is the backbone for managing the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system, which is used to transfer stipends under the PM Internship Scheme directly to beneficiaries bank accounts.

Repo and Reverse Repo Transactions

Repo (repurchase agreement) and reverse repo are short-term borrowing and lending instruments used by central banks to control liquidity. In a repo, banks sell securities to the central bank with an agreement to repurchase them later at a higher price, injecting liquidity. In a reverse repo, the central bank sells securities to banks with a promise to buy them back, absorbing liquidity. These operations influence short-term interest rates and money supply. They are essential in managing frictional liquidity and ensuring smooth functioning of the financial system.

Why in news?

The RBI Governor mentioned repo/reverse repo transactions as part of the tools used to manage frictional liquidity and stabilize money markets amid Indias economic outlook.

Resident but Not Ordinarily Resident (RNOR)

The status of Resident but Not Ordinarily Resident (RNOR) is a unique classification under Indian tax law. RNOR individuals are residents in India for tax purposes but do not meet the criteria of being ordinarily resident, which requires a minimum stay of 730 days in the previous seven years or 182 days in the current year and 365 days in the preceding four years. RNOR status allows certain foreign income exemptions, particularly on income earned outside India, such as foreign dividends. This classification is designed to ease tax burdens on returning Indians or those with global ties. RNOR status is reviewed annually based on residency criteria.

Why in news?

The article discusses tax implications for RNOR taxpayers receiving foreign dividends, emphasizing that such income is not taxable as business income in India due to lack of direct nexus with Indian business.

Rice Buffer Stock Levels in India

Indias rice buffer stock norms require maintaining 135.40 lakh tonnes by July 1 and 102.50 lakh tonnes by October 1 annually. These levels are set to ensure sufficient supply during lean seasons and price stability. Rice is a staple for over half of Indias population, making these stocks critical for food security. The actual stock as of September 1, 2024, was 323.11 lakh tonnes, more than double the October norm. Excess stocks allow for export flexibility and help manage domestic welfare schemes. These norms are reviewed periodically based on production forecasts and consumption patterns.

Why in news?

Rice stocks in India in 2024 greatly exceeded the mandated buffer levels, impacting export policies and domestic food security strategies.

Scott Baker (Economist)

Scott Baker is a professor at Northwestern University known for his work on economic policy uncertainty and financial markets. He co-developed the Economic Policy Uncertainty Index in 2010. Bakers research focuses on macroeconomics, asset pricing, and economic uncertaintys effects on investment and market behavior. He has contributed to understanding how policy uncertainty influences economic cycles and financial volatility. Bakers work integrates data science techniques with economic theory, enhancing real-time economic monitoring. He has also published on the impact of political events on markets and is a frequent advisor to policymakers and financial institutions.

Why in news?

Scott Baker is mentioned as one of the creators of the Economic Policy Uncertainty Index, which remains relevant due to current global economic instability.

Seasonal Adjustment Refinements

Seasonal adjustment refinements are modifications made to economic data to remove effects of predictable seasonal patterns such as holidays, weather changes, or agricultural cycles. This process allows clearer comparison of data across different time periods by isolating underlying trends. Refinements involve updating statistical models and algorithms used to identify seasonal effects, improving accuracy of indicators like inflation. Seasonal adjustment is critical for timely economic analysis and policy decisions, as it prevents misleading interpretations caused by seasonal volatility. These refinements are regularly applied to CPI data and other economic measures.

Why in news?

Seasonal adjustment refinements were a factor in the eurozone inflation revision for September 2024, affecting the ECBs monetary policy stance.

Short Options Contracts

Short options contracts involve selling options, obligating the seller to fulfill the contract if exercised. Sellers collect premiums but face potentially unlimited losses if the market moves against them. Short options are riskier than long options and require higher margin requirements to cover possible losses. Traders use short options for income generation or hedging but must maintain sufficient capital to meet margin calls. Regulatory bodies like SEBI impose additional margins, such as the Extreme Loss Margin, to mitigate risks from sudden volatility spikes, especially near contract expiry dates.

Why in news?

SEBI increased margin requirements on short options contracts to ensure traders maintain enough capital to cover extreme losses during volatile expiry days.

Skype Video Call Impersonation

Skype video call impersonation is a fraud technique where criminals use Skypes video feature to pose as trusted officials or authorities. This method involves real-time interaction, allowing scammers to manipulate victims through visual and verbal cues. Unlike text-based scams, video impersonation enhances credibility by showing fake uniforms and settings. It exploits the victims psychological response to perceived authority and immediacy. Skypes global reach and accessibility make it a preferred platform for such scams. Criminals often use pre-recorded videos or live actors to simulate official environments, increasing the scams sophistication.

Why in news?

Skype video call impersonation is central to the Digital Arrest Scam, enabling fraudsters to maintain visual control over victims during extortion.

Sound Money

Sound money refers to a monetary system that maintains stable purchasing power and avoids excessive inflation or deflation. It often involves a currency backed by tangible assets like gold or a strict monetary policy to control money supply. Sound money supports economic freedom by preserving savings and encouraging investment. It contrasts with fiat money systems prone to inflation due to government intervention. The concept is central to the Economic Freedom of the World Index, which assesses countries based on inflation rates, monetary growth, and currency stability to evaluate their adherence to sound money principles.

Why in news?

Sound money is a key component of the Economic Freedom of the World Index, which recently reported global economic freedom trends including monetary stability factors.

Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in Education

Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are designated areas with economic laws different from the rest of the country, aimed at increasing trade balance, investment, and employment. While traditionally focused on manufacturing and exports, some state of Indias, including Uttar Pradesh, are exploring SEZs for educational institutions to promote research, innovation, and skill development. These SEZs provide tax benefits, simplified regulations, and infrastructure support to educational entities. The integration of SEZs with higher education aims to create hubs combining academia with industry, encouraging practical skill development and research commercialization.

Why in news?

Uttar Pradeshs policy includes the establishment of SEZs to support skill development and research capabilities in higher education.

Structural Liquidity

Structural liquidity refers to long-term imbalances in the availability of funds caused by fundamental economic changes such as shifts in savings, investment demand, or fiscal policy. Unlike frictional liquidity, it reflects persistent mismatches that require policy adjustments beyond routine monetary tools. Structural liquidity issues can lead to sustained interest rate changes and impact economic growth. Central banks monitor structural liquidity to design appropriate macroeconomic policies and ensure financial stability over longer horizons.

Why in news?

Structural liquidity was contrasted with frictional liquidity by the RBI Governor to clarify different types of liquidity challenges affecting Indias money markets and monetary policy.

Subscription Traps

Subscription traps refer to deceptive marketing practices where consumers are unknowingly enrolled in recurring subscription services. These traps often involve hidden terms, difficult cancellation processes, or misleading offers. Common in digital commerce, they exploit automatic renewal rules and consumer inattention. The FTC targets these traps to protect consumers from unexpected charges and financial harm. Subscription traps have become a focal point for regulatory updates due to the rise of online services and apps employing aggressive or unclear subscription models.

Why in news?

The 2024 FTC rule update focuses on combating subscription traps by increasing enforcement against deceptive automatic renewal practices in digital subscriptions.

Tail Risk

Tail risk refers to the risk of rare, extreme events in financial markets that lie beyond the normal distribution’s expected range. These events cause losses that standard risk models often underestimate. Tail risk is critical in options trading and portfolio management because it can lead to sudden, large financial impacts. Risk measures like Value at Risk (VaR) often fail to capture tail risk fully, prompting additional safeguards like the Extreme Loss Margin. Tail risk events include market crashes, geopolitical shocks, or unexpected economic crises that cause abrupt price moves.

Why in news?

Tail risk is brought into light due to SEBIs new regulation increasing margins to protect against losses from rare, extreme market downturns on expiry days.

Universal Account Number (UAN)

The Universal Account Number (UAN) is a unique 12-digit identifier assigned to EPFO members to consolidate multiple provident fund accounts under one umbrella. Introduced in 2014, it simplifies management and portability of PF accounts across jobs. UAN links all member PF accounts, enabling online access to balances, claims, and transfers. It reduces paperwork and delays in PF settlements. The UAN is linked to biometric and Aadhaar data for verification. It allows employers and employees to track contributions and facilitates faster claim processing through digital platforms.

Why in news?

UAN continues to be a key tool for EPFO in managing the increasing number of members and streamlining provident fund services amid rising formal employment in India.

Urban Population Sampling Methodology in CPI-U

The CPI-U samples urban areas with populations of at least 10,000 people. These areas are stratified by size and region to represent diverse urban spending patterns. Sampling excludes rural areas and smaller towns, focusing on metropolitan statistical areas and urban clusters. The methodology uses a rotating panel of households surveyed every six months to update spending data. This approach ensures the index reflects current consumption patterns while maintaining statistical reliability. Sampling design affects CPI-Us representativeness, especially in regions with mixed urban-rural populations, potentially underrepresenting inflation experiences outside larger urban centers.

Why in news?

The CPI-Us urban sampling methodology impacts inflation measurement during uneven economic recovery across US regions.

Venture Capital Fund for Indian Space Startups

The Venture Capital Fund proposed by IN-SPACe is valued at Rs. 1,000 crore and is designed to provide financial support to private space startups in India. This fund aims to encourage innovation and entrepreneurship in satellite technology, space missions, and related technologies. It is part of the governments broader space sector reforms to increase private investment. The fund provides early-stage equity or debt funding and strategic support for startups to scale their operations. It is one of the first dedicated venture funds globally focused exclusively on the space industry within a national framework.

Why in news?

The fund is brought into light as a key initiative by IN-SPACe to accelerate private sector participation and innovation in Indias space economy, marking policy shift from government-only space missions.

Vision 2030 (Saudi Arabia)

Vision 2030 is Saudi Arabias strategic framework launched in 2016 to reduce its dependence on oil, diversify its economy, and develop sectors like health, education, infrastructure, recreation, and tourism. It targets increasing non-oil government revenue and boosting private sector participation. The plan includes social reforms, such as expanding women’s rights and promoting cultural initiatives. Vision 2030 is supported by major projects like NEOM, a futuristic city, and the Red Sea Project, a luxury tourism destination. It aims to create a vibrant society, a thriving economy, and an ambitious nation by 2030.

Why in news?

Vision 2030 is a key agenda at the Future Investment Initiative, with foreign investors and officials discussing partnerships aligned with Saudi Arabias economic reform and diversification goals.

Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) Between Microsoft and Constellation

A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) is a contract where a power buyer agrees to purchase electricity directly from a generator for a specified period. Microsoft and Constellation signed a 20-year PPA to buy carbon-free power from the Crane Clean Energy Center and the restarted Three Mile Island Unit 1 reactor. This long-term agreement guarantees revenue for the nuclear projects, supporting their financing and development. PPAs are increasingly used by corporations to meet sustainability goals and secure stable energy costs while promoting clean energy infrastructure.

Why in news?

The signing of the 20-year PPA between Microsoft and Constellation is a key step enabling the launch of the Crane Clean Energy Center and the restart of Three Mile Island Unit 1 for clean energy production.

Universal Basic Income (UBI) in Climate Finance

Universal Basic Income (UBI) is a fixed income given regularly to individuals regardless of employment status. In climate finance, UBI funded by fossil fuel extraction charges aims to redistribute wealth from polluting industries to vulnerable populations worldwide. This approach supports economic justice by providing financial security to those most affected by climate change and poverty. UBI as part of climate policy is designed to reduce inequality and facilitate a just transition away from fossil fuels, ensuring that low-income communities benefit from climate action funding.

Why in news?

UBI is central to the Cap and Share proposal, which plans to use fossil fuel extraction revenues to provide a global basic income ahead of COP29 climate talks.

Recrystallization Point

The recrystallization point is the temperature at which deformed metal grains are replaced by a new set of defect-free grains during heating, typically occurring between 30% to 60% of the metal’s melting temperature. For steel, this is usually above 926°C (1700°F). This process restores ductility lost during work hardening without melting the metal. It affects mechanical properties and microstructure, enabling easier shaping. The recrystallization temperature varies with alloy composition, prior deformation, and heating rate. Controlling this temperature is critical in metal forming industries to balance strength and flexibility.

Why in news?

Turkey’s anti-dumping duties on hot rolled steel imports relate to steel processed above its recrystallization point, affecting trade and domestic production.

Sub-Saharan Africas Human Capital Challenges

Sub-Saharan Africas Human Capital Index stands at 0.40, indicating children born will be only 40% as productive as in an ideal health and education scenario. This low HCI reflects high child mortality, low school enrollment, poor learning quality, and low adult survival rates. The region faces challenges such as infectious diseases, malnutrition, and underfunded education systems, which limit human capital development. Improving HCI to 0.80 could potentially double GDP per capita and increase annual growth by 1.4 percentage points over 50 years, denoting the economic importance of addressing these issues.

Why in news?

The 2024 World Bank report draws attention to Sub-Saharan Africas low HCI and the potential economic gains from investments in health and education.

Geography (Indian & Physical)

Horn of Africa

The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in East Africa that includes countries such as Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, and Djibouti. It is bordered by the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Indian Ocean. The region is strategically important for global shipping routes, especially near the Bab el-Mandeb Strait. It has a complex geopolitical landscape with ongoing conflicts and peacekeeping missions. The Horn of Africa is also home to diverse cultures and languages, with Ethiopia being the largest and most populous country in the region. Its location makes it a key player in regional security and infrastructure development.

Why in news?

Ethiopias strategic location in the Horn of Africa is brought into light due to its new membership in BRICS, emphasizing its role in regional peacekeeping and infrastructure projects.

Indus River in Ladakh

The Indus River originates in Tibet and flows through Ladakh before entering Pakistan. It is one of the longest rivers in Asia, crucial for irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectric power. In Ladakh, the river supports sparse agriculture in an otherwise arid region. The Indus is also central to the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan. Its flow is influenced by glacial melt and seasonal snow. Control over tributaries and upstream sections in Ladakh, such as near Demchok, is geopolitically sensitive due to the rivers importance for millions downstream.

Why in news?

Demchoks location near the Indus River makes the recent India-China border agreement critical for managing water security and regional stability.

Kosi River

The Kosi River, also called the Sorrow of Bihar, originates in the Himalayas in Nepal and flows into the Ganges in India. It is notorious for frequent course changes due to heavy sedimentation and flooding, causing damage in Bihar. The rivers basin supports extensive agriculture but also faces recurrent flood challenges. The Kosi has a complex network of tributaries and is managed through multiple hydraulic structures, including the Birpur barrage. Its sediment load is among the highest in the world, contributing to riverbank erosion and shifting channels. Cross-border water management is critical for flood control.

Why in news?

The Kosi Rivers flow was impacted by the Birpur barrage release in 2024, leading to severe flooding in Bihar due to sudden water volume increases.

Malacca Strait

The Malacca Strait is a narrow, 890-kilometer-long maritime passage between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is one of the worlds busiest shipping lanes, handling about one-quarter of global maritime trade, including large volumes of oil shipments to East Asia. The straits narrowness and shallow waters make it vulnerable to congestion, piracy, and blockades. Chinas strategic interest in Gwadar Port partly stems from the desire to bypass this chokepoint, reducing risks and transit time for energy imports and exports. The strait has been a critical point in global geopolitics and trade security for decades.

Why in news?

Gwadar Ports strategic value rises as it offers an alternative route to the congested Malacca Strait, brought into light in discussions about regional trade security in October 2024.

Maldivian Island Integration

Maldivian Island Integration refers to efforts to connect the 26 atolls and over 1,000 islands of the Maldives through infrastructure, transportation, and economic policies. The Maldives faces challenges due to its dispersed geography, with most islands accessible only by boat or air. Integration projects focus on physical links like bridges and causeways, alongside digital and economic integration, to promote equitable development. Enhanced connectivity supports tourism, trade, and access to services. The Greater Malé Connectivity Project is a flagship initiative in this context, aiming to unify the capital with surrounding islands to encourage regional development and improve residents’ quality of life.

Why in news?

The Greater Malé Connectivity Project represents a major step in Maldivian Island Integration, with recent bilateral talks emphasizing further expansion and support for these efforts.

Marathwada Region

Marathwada is a drought-prone region in central Maharashtra, historically part of the Nizams Hyderabad State before integration into Maharashtra in 1956. It comprises eight districts including Aurangabad and Beed. The region faces recurrent droughts due to erratic monsoons and poor irrigation infrastructure. Agriculture is predominantly rain-fed, with cotton, sorghum, and pulses as main crops. Marathwada has a high incidence of farmer distress and migration. The region also holds historical significance for the Ajanta and Ellora caves, UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Efforts to improve water management and agricultural resilience continue amid climate variability.

Why in news?

Marathwada was one of the worst-affected regions during the 2018-2019 drought, leading to extensive use of fodder camps to support cattle and rural communities.

Mid-Latitude Cyclones

Mid-latitude cyclones are large-scale low-pressure systems that develop between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres. They form along weather fronts where contrasting air masses meet, particularly in the extratropics. These cyclones typically move from west to east, driven by the jet stream. They produce a variety of weather, including rain, snow, and strong winds, and are responsible for much of the extratropical weather variability. Their development involves complex interactions between temperature gradients, humidity, and atmospheric dynamics. Mid-latitude cyclones play a vital role in redistributing heat and moisture across the globe.

Why in news?

Changes in the behavior and frequency of mid-latitude cyclones are linked to shifting atmospheric rivers and altered precipitation in the extratropics, affecting climate and water availability.

Non-Registrable and Optional Registrable Documents in Land Transactions

Non-registrable documents refer to land and property documents that legally do not require government registration but are essential for record-keeping and administrative purposes. Optional registrable documents are those that can be registered voluntarily to provide additional legal proof or clarity in land dealings. These documents include affidavits, declarations, agreements, and other ancillary papers related to land ownership or transfer. Proper cataloging of these documents aids in reducing disputes and improving transparency. Assams Digidoc system uniquely focuses on these often overlooked document categories to enhance the completeness and reliability of land records.

Why in news?

The Assam governments Digidoc system specifically catalogs non-registrable and optional registrable documents, improving land record management as part of the broader Mission Basundhara 3.0 initiative.

North-East Frontier Regions of India

The North-East Frontier regions of India comprise states such as Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya, and Sikkim. These areas are characterized by difficult terrain, diverse ethnic groups, and strategic sensitivity due to proximity to international borders with China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. Infrastructure development here is challenging due to mountainous landscapes and heavy monsoon rains. The region has historically faced socio-economic disparities and insurgency issues. Government initiatives focus on improving connectivity, security, and economic development to integrate these border areas with the rest of India and strengthen national defense.

Why in news?

The North-East frontier regions are a focus of Border Area Development projects aimed at improving infrastructure and security in sensitive border zones.

Oxbow Lakes

Oxbow lakes are crescent-shaped lakes formed when a river meander is cut off from the main channel. This process occurs due to erosion and deposition, isolating a water body from the river. Oxbow lakes are common in floodplain regions and serve as important habitats for aquatic species. They play role in flood control by temporarily holding excess water and contribute to groundwater recharge. In Assam, many beels are oxbow lakes formed by the Brahmaputra River system. These lakes often support diverse ecosystems and traditional fishing communities dependent on their seasonal water availability.

Why in news?

Oxbow lakes, locally known as beels in Assam, are the focus of restoration efforts under the SWIFT project to enhance wetland fisheries and ecological health.

Palynomorphs

Palynomorphs are microscopic organic particles, including spores, pollen, and other acid-resistant plant and fungal remains. They are preserved in sedimentary rocks and provide critical data for reconstructing past climates and ecosystems. Palynomorphs are used in biostratigraphy to date rock layers and correlate geological formations. Their chemical resistance allows survival through intense geological processes. In the Barakar Formation, palynomorph assemblages help interpret the Permian terrestrial environment and vegetation. They also assist in identifying organic-rich zones with hydrocarbon potential. Palynology, the study of palynomorphs, is a key tool in petroleum geology and paleoecology.

Why in news?

Palynomorphs from the Barakar Formation were analyzed to better understand the Permian ecosystems and assess hydrocarbon source rock quality in the eastern South Karanpura coalfield.

Porous Indo-Bangladesh Border Geography

The Indo-Bangladesh border is 4,096.7 km long, passing through five state of Indias – West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura. West Bengal has the longest stretch at 2,216.7 km. The border terrain includes rivers, floodplains, and hilly areas, making fencing difficult. Several rivers change course seasonally, causing border disputes and encroachments. The porous nature allows for frequent illegal crossings. Natural features like the Teesta and Feni rivers complicate demarcation. The border’s complex geography requires continuous monitoring and adaptive fencing strategies to secure the region effectively.

Why in news?

The border’s challenging geography is cited as a key reason for slow progress in fencing and controlling illegal immigration in West Bengal.

River Capture

River capture, also called stream piracy, occurs when a river or stream is diverted from its original course into a neighboring drainage system. This happens due to erosion breaching a watershed divide, often accelerating erosion and sediment transport downstream. The Arun River capture event about 89,000 years ago redirected flow eastward at high elevation, causing rapid incision and valley deepening. River capture can alter local hydrology, sediment budgets, and landscape evolution. It is a key driver in the formation of unusual topographies such as the Arun River Gorge in the Himalayas.

Why in news?

The river capture event triggered enhanced erosion in the Arun River Gorge, influencing the Himalayan uplift and Mount Everests increasing height.

River Capture Event

A river capture event occurs when one river or stream diverts the headwaters of another, altering drainage basins. This process can happen due to erosion, tectonic activity, or natural shifts in landscape. River capture changes sediment transport and can drastically modify local ecosystems. It often leads to increased erosion in the capturing river and reduced flow in the captured river. In the case of the Arun and Kosi Rivers, the capture event approximately 89,000 years ago caused the Kosi to take over the Aruns flow, increasing erosion and influencing the Himalayan uplift through isostatic rebound.

Why in news?

The river capture event involving the Arun and Kosi Rivers is linked to geological changes that contributed to the uplift of Mount Everest.

Rohtang Pass

Rohtang Pass is a high mountain pass in the Himalayas, located at an elevation of about 3,978 meters (13,051 feet) in Himachal Pradesh. It connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahaul and Spiti Valleys. The pass remains snowbound and inaccessible for about six months annually, typically from November to May. It is part of the Pir Panjal Range and is known for its treacherous weather and frequent landslides. Rohtang Pass is important route for military and civilian traffic, especially for access to the remote border areas near China. The name “Rohtang” means “pile of corpses” in the local language, reflecting its dangerous nature.

Why in news?

The 1968 AN-12 crash occurred near Rohtang Pass, and the recovery of bodies in 2024 took place in this challenging high-altitude region.

Vientiane, Lao PDR

Vientiane is the capital and largest city of Laos, situated on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. It serves as the political, cultural, and economic center of Laos. The city is known for its French colonial architecture, Buddhist temples like Pha That Luang, and its role as a diplomatic hub in mainland Southeast Asia. Vientianes population is approximately 950,000. The city has developed rapidly in recent decades but retains a laid-back atmosphere. It hosts various regional meetings due to Laoss neutrality and strategic location within ASEAN and the Mekong subregion.

Why in news?

Vientiane hosted the 19th East Asia Summit on 11 October 2024, bringing together leaders from 18 Asia-Pacific countries.

West Central Bay of Bengal

The west central Bay of Bengal is a key maritime region in the northeastern Indian Ocean, bounded by India and Myanmar. It is a frequent site for the formation of cyclonic circulations and tropical depressions during the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Sea surface temperatures here often exceed 28°C, favoring storm development. The region’s bathymetry and atmospheric conditions contribute to variability in rainfall across eastern India. It is crucial for the Indian Meteorological Department’s seasonal forecasts, especially for states like Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.

Why in news?

The west central Bay of Bengal is the location of the current cyclonic circulation affecting rainfall patterns in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in October 2024.

Environment & Ecology

Rashtrapati Bhavan Estate

The Rashtrapati Bhavan estate is the official residence of the President of India, located in New Delhi. It spans over 320 acres and includes the main building, Mughal Gardens, and several other gardens like Amrit Udyan. Designed by British architect Edwin Lutyens, the estate combines Western and Indian architectural styles. It serves as a venue for official ceremonies, cultural events, and diplomatic meetings. The estate also functions as a public space for visitors during specific periods. Its gardens are known for hosting rare and native plant species, reflecting ecological conservation efforts.

Why in news?

The Rashtrapati Bhavan estate is brought into light due to the development and cultural enhancement projects like the creation of Amrit Udyan and installation of Konark wheel replicas.

Maritime Classification Societies

Maritime classification societies are independent organizations that establish and maintain technical standards for the design, construction, and operational maintenance of ships and marine structures. Examples include ClassNK, DNV, and ABS. They issue certificates confirming compliance with safety, environmental, and performance criteria. Their inspections cover hull integrity, machinery, electrical systems, and propulsion mechanisms like CPPs. Classification societies also conduct periodic surveys to ensure ongoing compliance. They play important role in maritime insurance and international shipping regulations, influencing shipbuilding and operational practices worldwide.

Why in news?

CPP systems on new Indian Coast Guard vessels must meet certification standards set by maritime classification societies to ensure safety and performance.

Propelled Vessels

Propelled vessels are ships or boats equipped with a mechanical propulsion system, such as engines or motors, enabling self-movement through water. This category includes cargo ships, passenger vessels, and fishing boats powered by diesel, steam, or electric engines. Non-propelled vessels, in contrast, rely on external forces like towing or wind. Propelled vessels are subject to stricter regulations due to their operational independence and potential risks, including collision and pollution. The distinction is crucial in maritime law, affecting licensing, safety standards, and insurance. Propelled vessels dominate commercial shipping but exclude many offshore service vessels and floating platforms.

Why in news?

The Coastal Shipping Bill, 2024 addresses the exclusion of non-propelled and offshore vessels by expanding the definition and regulatory coverage beyond just propelled vessels.

Environment & Ecology

Asiatic Golden Cat (Catopuma temminckii)

The Asiatic golden cat is a medium-sized wild cat native to Southeast Asia and parts of Northeast India, including Assam. It has a variable coat color ranging from golden-brown to reddish or gray, with some spotted morphs. It is elusive and primarily nocturnal, making it difficult to study. The species is classified as Near Threatened due to habitat loss and poaching. It plays a key role as a mesopredator in forest ecosystems. Its rediscovery in Manas National Park after years of conflict indicates improving habitat conditions and reduced human disturbance.

Why in news?

The Asiatic golden cat was recently rediscovered in Manas National Park, symbolizing a positive outcome of resumed conservation efforts post-conflict.

Asiatic Lion Territorial Behavior

Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica) exhibit unique territorial behavior compared to their African counterparts. Male lions establish territories averaging 56 square kilometers, which they actively patrol and defend. Female lions have smaller, overlapping territories within male ranges. Territorial disputes often cause males to roam beyond protected areas, increasing human-lion conflict. This behavior contributed to Asiatic lions moving outside Gir National Park boundaries in the 1990s. The lions’ territoriality is linked to resource availability and mating opportunities. Conservation programs monitor these patterns to manage lion populations and reduce conflict in surrounding human settlements.

Why in news?

Asiatic lions territorial expansion outside Gir PA has prompted proposals for larger Eco-Sensitive Zones to safeguard their habitats amid increasing population numbers.

Assam as a Migratory Bird Habitat

Assam lies at the intersection of the Central Asian and East Asian-Australasian Flyways. It hosts diverse wetland ecosystems such as the Kaziranga National Park and Deepor Beel that provide critical stopover sites for millions of migratory birds annually. Species include the Greater Adjutant Stork and various species of ducks and cranes. Assam’s wetlands are threatened by urbanization, agriculture expansion, and climate change. Local communities participate in conservation through eco-tourism and habitat restoration projects. The regions biodiversity significance is recognized under national and international conservation frameworks.

Why in news?

Assams strategic location on two major flyways marks its importance for migratory bird conservation amid rising threats to their populations.

Central Asian and East Asian–Australasian Flyways

The Central Asian Flyway (CAF) and the East Asian–Australasian Flyway (EAAF) are two major migratory bird routes used by waterbirds and other migratory species. These flyways connect the breeding grounds in the northern hemisphere (Siberia, Central Asia, Arctic regions) with the wintering grounds in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australasia.The CAF extends from the Arctic through Central Asia to the Indian Ocean, covering 30 countries. It includes India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Maldives, Afghanistan, and Iran, among others. The flyway supports around 279 migratory waterbird species, including several that are globally threatened.The EAAF is one of the most important flyways in the world. It spans 22 countries, extending from the Russian Far East and Alaska through East Asia, Southeast Asia, and reaching Australia and New Zealand. It supports over 500 migratory bird species, including shorebirds, ducks, and cranes.These flyways provide critical stopover sites such as wetlands, marshes, and coastal zones, which are essential for feeding, resting, and breeding. Without these sites, migratory birds cannot complete their long journeys. The flyways are also vital for maintaining global biodiversity and supporting ecological balance across continents.

Beels

Beels are natural or oxbow lakes primarily found in the floodplains of Assam and Northeast India. They form through river meandering and seasonal flooding, creating isolated water bodies. Beels act as natural reservoirs, regulating river flow, recharging groundwater, and controlling floods. These wetlands support rich biodiversity, including indigenous fish species, migratory birds, and aquatic plants. Many beels undergo seasonal shrinkage or drying, affecting local ecosystems. They are crucial for rural livelihoods, supporting fisheries and agriculture. Beels also influence microclimates and uphold traditional fishing customs in Assam. Conservation is essential to maintain ecological balance and water security.

Why in news?

Assam launched the SWIFT project to rejuvenate 129 beels, aiming to restore 4,000 hectares of wetland fisheries, enhancing fish production and water management in the region.

Bengal Slow Loris

The Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) is a nocturnal primate native to Northeast India, Bangladesh, and parts of Southeast Asia. It has a toxic bite, unique among primates, produced by mixing saliva with secretions from a gland on its arm. This defensive mechanism deters predators. The species moves slowly through trees, feeding on insects, fruits, and tree gum. It is listed as Vulnerable due to habitat destruction and illegal wildlife trade. Slow lorises have a specialized grip allowing them to hang motionless for long periods, aiding camouflage.

Why in news?

The Bengal slow loris inhabits the Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, where habitat fragmentation and industrial pollution threaten its survival.

Bhadra Tiger Reserve

The Bhadra Tiger Reserve is located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and covers an area of approximately 492 square kilometers. It was declared a tiger reserve in 1998 under Project Tiger. The reserve is home to population of Bengal tigers, Indian leopards, and other endangered species. It is part of a larger network of protected areas in the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The reserve features tropical moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests, and grasslands. It plays a key role in maintaining genetic diversity and ecological stability in the region.

Why in news?

The Bhadra Tiger Reserves buffer zones, including Choradenahalli State Forest, were expanded to improve tiger habitat connectivity and conservation outcomes.

Bhakra Reservoir

The Bhakra Reservoir is created by the Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej River in Himachal Pradesh. Completed in 1963, it is one of the highest gravity dams globally, standing 226 meters tall. The reservoir has a capacity of about 9.34 billion cubic meters and supports irrigation for millions of hectares in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. It also generates hydroelectric power with an installed capacity of 1,325 MW. The dam is crucial for flood control and drought relief in northern India. It is part of the Bhakra-Nangal project, a landmark in Indias post-independence infrastructure development.

Why in news?

Bhakra Reservoirs regulated water release helped maintain above-average storage levels in the Ganga basin during the 2023 drought, aiding agricultural and industrial water supply.

Biosecurity and Biosafety Networks

Biosecurity and biosafety networks are integrated systems designed to prevent, detect, and respond to biological threats. They include genome sequencing centers, containment laboratories (BSL-3 and BSL-4), and data-sharing platforms. These networks facilitate rapid identification and characterization of pathogens, enhancing outbreak response. They operate under strict protocols to prevent accidental release of dangerous agents. International cooperation is essential for their effectiveness, involving governments, research institutions, and public health agencies. Such networks have expanded post-Covid-19 to address emerging infectious diseases influenced by climate change and increased human-animal interactions.

Why in news?

The 2024 report marks the role of biosecurity and biosafety networks in monitoring zoonotic viruses and supporting human-bat interface surveillance.

Chital Deer (Axis axis)

The chital deer, also known as the spotted deer or axis deer, is native to the Indian subcontinent. It is a key prey species in many Indian wildlife sanctuaries, including Gandhi Sagar. Chital males have three-pronged antlers that can reach up to 1 meter in length. These deer live in herds ranging from a few individuals to over 100. They primarily feed on grasses, fruits, and leaves. Chital are known for their distinctive white spots and a white throat patch. Their population management is crucial for sustaining large carnivores like tigers and cheetahs.

Why in news?

Over 1,200 chital deer have been translocated to Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary to augment prey populations ahead of the cheetah reintroduction program.

Desert National Park

Desert National Park in Rajasthan covers approximately 3162 square kilometers, making it one of the largest protected areas in India. It is home to desert flora and fauna, including the Great Indian Bustard. The park features sand dunes, rocky terrain, and sparse vegetation adapted to arid conditions. It was established in 1981 to conserve desert ecosystems and endangered species. The park also hosts species like the Indian gazelle (chinkara) and desert fox. Its unique ecosystem supports migratory birds during certain seasons. The park faces challenges from human encroachment and climate change.

Why in news?

The Desert National Park is central to conservation efforts for the great Indian bustard, including habitat protection and breeding programs.

Emission Intensity

Emission intensity measures the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of economic output, commonly expressed as CO2 equivalent per unit of GDP. India targets a 45% reduction in emission intensity from 2005 levels by 2030, meaning economic growth will be less carbon-dependent. This metric differs from absolute emission cuts, focusing on efficiency improvements. Emission intensity allows developing economies to grow while gradually lowering carbon footprints. It is a key component of Indias Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement and is tracked annually by the government for policy adjustments.

Why in news?

Emission intensity reduction is central to Indias climate strategy, underpinning the CCTS and its carbon credit targets announced in 2023.

Energy Efficiency Index (EEI)

The Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) measures how effectively energy inputs are converted into economic output or services. It is a critical tool for tracking progress in reducing energy consumption relative to GDP growth. The EEI incorporates factors like technology adoption, infrastructure quality, and behavioral changes. Its improvements indicate less energy use per unit of economic activity. Countries report EEI data to international bodies to monitor energy-saving policies. The index helps identify sectors where efficiency gains can be maximized, supporting global climate goals by reducing energy waste and emissions without hindering economic growth.

Why in news?

Energy efficiency improvements are central to the Dubai Agreements goal to double energy efficiency by 2030, making EEI a key metric in monitoring progress.

Global Commons Fund (GCF)

The Global Commons Fund (GCF) is a proposed international financial mechanism aimed at collecting revenues through a global fossil fuel extraction charge. It intends to invest these funds in the green economy and provide a universal basic income (UBI) worldwide. The GCF is designed to support climate mitigation and adaptation, especially in the Global South, by offering grants and ending debt cycles for poorer nations. It plans to reward governments that leave fossil fuel reserves untapped, promoting conservation. The fund aims to be self-sustaining within 20 years, reducing dependence on fossil fuel revenues and avoiding incentives for further exploitation.

Why in news?

Equal Right proposed the GCF in 2024 as a sustainable financing solution for global UBI and a green just transition amid climate and economic crises.

Global Energy Monitor (GEM)

Global Energy Monitor is an international non-profit organization founded in 2007 that tracks fossil fuel and renewable energy projects worldwide. It maintains detailed, open-access databases on coal plants, oil and gas infrastructure, and clean energy developments. GEM’s Global Coal Plant Tracker is one of the most comprehensive sources on coal-fired power stations, documenting operational, planned, and retired plants globally. Its data is widely used by policymakers, researchers, and activists to analyze energy transitions and climate change impacts. GEMs work has influenced climate policy debates by denoting ongoing investments in fossil fuels despite renewable energy growth.

Why in news?

GEM reported that BRICS nations will see fossil fuel capacity drop below 50% by the end of 2024, marking a major milestone in their shift toward renewable energy.

Global Footprint Network

The Global Footprint Network is an international research organization founded in 2003 that calculates humanitys ecological footprint and biocapacity. It measures how much nature humans consume versus how much the Earth can regenerate. The network uses data on carbon emissions, cropland, grazing land, fishing grounds, forest products, and built-up land. It publishes the annual Earth Overshoot Day, the date when humanitys resource consumption exceeds Earth’s capacity for the year. The organization collaborates with governments, NGOs, and businesses to promote sustainability and resource management. Its footprint calculator is widely used for personal and corporate ecological assessments.

Why in news?

The Global Footprint Networks 2024 data brought into light accelerated ecological overshoot, emphasizing urgent environmental action due to worsening resource depletion and climate change impacts.

Global Forest Coalition (GFC)

The Global Forest Coalition was founded in 2000 as an international alliance of NGOs and Indigenous Peoples’ organizations. It focuses on forest conservation, biodiversity protection, and social justice. GFC opposes market-based mechanisms such as carbon and biodiversity credits, advocating instead for community rights and sustainable forest management. It plays an active role in UN climate and biodiversity negotiations, emphasizing Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ contributions. The coalition publishes reports, organizes campaigns, and supports grassroots movements, especially in the Global South, promoting Indigenous knowledge in environmental policymaking.

Why in news?

Valentina Figuera Martínez from the Global Forest Coalition expressed concerns about biodiversity credits potentially causing harm similar to carbon markets ahead of COP16 negotiations.

Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI)

The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) was launched in 1988 as a public-private partnership to eradicate polio worldwide. It includes six partners – WHO, Rotary International, CDC, UNICEF, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and GAVI. GPEI coordinates immunization campaigns, surveillance, and outbreak response globally. It differentiates between wild poliovirus and vaccine-derived poliovirus cases, issuing timely public announcements. The initiative has reduced polio cases by over 99% since inception. GPEIs success relies on coordinated global efforts, rapid communication, and vaccination drives, particularly in endemic and high-risk regions.

Why in news?

GPEIs communication practices are under scrutiny following delayed announcements about a polio case in Meghalaya compared to rapid alerts for cases in Israel and the U.S.

Golden Langur

The golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) is an endangered primate endemic to a small region of Assam and Bhutan. It is known for its striking golden-orange fur and arboreal lifestyle. The species prefers dense, evergreen forests and is primarily folivorous, feeding on leaves and fruits. The golden langurs population is threatened by habitat fragmentation, poaching, and human disturbance. It was first described scientifically in the 1950s. Conservation programs focus on habitat preservation, anti-poaching measures, and community awareness. The golden langur holds cultural importance among local communities and features in folklore and religious practices.

Why in news?

Aaranyaks efforts have contributed to the protection and study of the golden langur, enhancing conservation policies in Assams forest regions.

Great Green Wall

The Great Green Wall is an African-led environmental initiative launched in 2007 aiming to create an 8,000 km long and 15 km wide belt of trees across the Sahel region, from Senegal to Djibouti. It targets desertification control, land restoration, and food security improvement. The project uses native trees and vegetation to stabilize soil and increase biodiversity. It supports local economies via sustainable land management and agroforestry. It is one of the worlds largest environmental projects, backed by the African Union, UN agencies, and international partners.

Why in news?

The Great Green Wall is brought into light as a major restoration effort complementing other initiatives like TREES to combat land degradation and climate change effects in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Green Highways Initiative

The Green Highways Initiative by the National Highways Authority of India aims to develop eco-friendly highways through extensive tree plantation and sustainable infrastructure. It incorporates soil and water conservation, waste recycling, and solar energy integration along national highways. The program enhances roadside ecology by creating green belts that reduce air pollution and provide habitat for local wildlife. It also improves the aesthetic appeal and helps in controlling soil erosion. The initiative aligns with national objectives for sustainable development and environmental protection in highway construction and maintenance.

Why in news?

Minister Nitin Gadkari referenced the Green Highways Initiative during the launch of the Humsafar Policy, denoting its role in promoting environmental sustainability alongside infrastructure development.

Green Hydrogen (GH2)

Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced by electrolysis using renewable energy sources like solar and wind power, resulting in zero carbon emissions during production. It differs from grey and blue hydrogen, which rely on fossil fuels and emit greenhouse gases. GH2 is considered essential for decarbonizing sectors that are difficult to electrify directly, including steel manufacturing, refining, and heavy transport. Electrolyzers split water into hydrogen and oxygen using renewable electricity. The global green hydrogen market is expected to grow rapidly as countries pursue net-zero targets, with costs decreasing due to technological advances and renewable energy expansion.

Why in news?

Green hydrogen is central to Indias climate strategy and COP29 discussions, focusing on scaling production and funding for clean energy transitions.

ICAR-NBAGR (National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources)

Established in 1984 in Karnal, Haryana, ICAR-NBAGR is a premier Indian institute dedicated to the conservation, characterization, and sustainable utilization of animal genetic resources. It maintains a national repository of indigenous breeds across species like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and poultry. The bureau conducts genetic evaluation, cryopreservation of germplasm, and develops breed improvement strategies. It documents and safeguards over 219 indigenous livestock breeds and collaborates internationally for genetic resource management and capacity building. It plays important role in preserving India’s livestock biodiversity.

Why in news?

The 21st Livestock Census will include data on 219 indigenous breeds recognized by ICAR-NBAGR, aiding breed conservation and improvement programs.

Indian Skimmer (Rynchops albicollis)

The Indian Skimmer is a waterbird with a unique bill where the lower mandible is longer than the upper, enabling it to skim the water surface to catch fish. It inhabits riverine sandbanks and coastal wetlands across South Asia. Classified as endangered, its population faces threats from habitat loss, human disturbance, and pollution. Indian Skimmers migrate seasonally between inland rivers such as the Chambal and Mahanadi and coastal areas like Kakinada port. Conservation focuses on protecting breeding sites and increasing local community awareness to support population recovery.

Why in news?

Around 150 to 200 Indian Skimmers were spotted for the first time at Lower Manair Dam in Telangana, revealing a new migratory pattern since 2023.

Indigenous Health Knowledge Sharing

Indigenous health knowledge sharing involves the exchange of traditional medical practices, remedies, and health philosophies among indigenous communities and countries. This sharing promotes preservation of cultural heritage and supports biodiversity conservation. Mechanisms include workshops, digital platforms, and international collaborations. It helps improve healthcare accessibility and diversity by incorporating local remedies into formal health systems. Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing agreements are critical to protect indigenous communities. Southeast Asia is a key region where such knowledge sharing is actively promoted by WHO initiatives.

Why in news?

The WHO Centre of Excellence for Traditional Medicine facilitates international collaboration to share indigenous health knowledge and best practices.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a vast fertile region spanning northern India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, formed by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river systems. It covers approximately 700,000 square kilometers and supports over 400 million people. The plain is agriculturally productive but suffers from severe environmental challenges, including high levels of air pollution primarily due to stubble burning, vehicular emissions, and industrial activity. It experiences frequent winter smog episodes caused by temperature inversions trapping pollutants. The regions air quality issues have been linked to increased respiratory diseases and reduced life expectancy.

Why in news?

Air pollution in the Indo-Gangetic Plain has been linked to a 7-year reduction in life expectancy, drawing attention to urgent environmental health interventions.

Khasi Mandarin

The Khasi Mandarin is a citrus fruit native to the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya. It is prized for its sweet taste and thin peel, distinct from common mandarins. This variety thrives in high-altitude, humid subtropical climates and is traditionally harvested by indigenous communities. Khasi Mandarin is genetically unique, contributing to the biodiversity of citrus species in the region. It has been used in local medicine and cuisine for centuries. Its cultivation supports small-scale farmers and preserves traditional agricultural knowledge. Khasi Mandarin trees are often interspersed with wild citrus relatives, aiding genetic diversity vital for disease resistance and breeding.

Why in news?

The Khasi Mandarin is part of the citrus diversity under threat in Assams citrus belt due to habitat loss and environmental degradation impacting traditional agriculture and biodiversity.

Khejarli Massacre of 1730

The Khejarli massacre occurred in 1730 when 363 Bishnoi people sacrificed their lives to protect Khejri trees from being cut down by royal forces. This event is one of the earliest recorded environmental martyrdoms. The Bishnoi communitys commitment to preserving the Khejri tree, which is vital for desert ecology, led them to non-violent resistance. The massacre inspired later environmental movements and is commemorated as a symbol of ecological activism. The Khejri tree (Prosopis cineraria) is considered sacred and essential for preventing desertification in the Thar Desert.

Why in news?

The massacre is referenced in discussions about the Bishnoi communitys environmental activism, especially amid recent wildlife protection controversies in Rajasthan.

Khillar Breed

The Khillar is an indigenous cattle breed primarily found in Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka. It is known for its distinctive white coat with black or brown patches. Khillar cattle are drought-resistant and adapted to harsh climatic conditions, making them valuable in arid regions. They are dual-purpose, used for both milk and draft work, with milk containing high levels of A2 beta-casein protein. Their disease resistance reduces the need for veterinary intervention. Khillar bulls are often used in traditional bullock cart racing in rural Maharashtra. The breed’s population has declined due to crossbreeding and mechanization.

Why in news?

The Maharashtra governments recent declaration of indigenous cows as ‘Rajyamata-Gomata’ marks Khillar among breeds targeted for conservation ahead of the 2024 Assembly elections.

Khulan (Mongolian Wild Ass)

The Khulan (Equus hemionus hemionus) is a subspecies of the Asiatic wild ass native to the Mongolian steppes and deserts. Khulan are adapted to arid environments, capable of traveling long distances for water. They live in herds and have a lifespan of 20-25 years in the wild. Khulan populations have declined due to habitat loss, hunting, and competition with livestock. They are classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN. Khulan play important ecological role by grazing on steppe vegetation, influencing plant diversity and structure. They are culturally to Mongolian nomads.

Why in news?

The dzud has caused starvation and increased mortality among Khulan herds, raising conservation concerns for this Near Threatened species.

Kunming-Montreal Framework

The Kunming-Montreal Framework is an international agreement adopted in 2022 under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aiming to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030. It sets global targets including mobilizing at least $200 billion annually in funding for nature protection and restoration. The framework emphasizes reducing harmful subsidies, enhancing conservation finance, and promoting sustainable use of natural resources. It is named after Kunming, China, where the CBD COP15 was held, and Montreal, Canada, where the framework was finalized. It serves as a key global mechanism for biodiversity financing and policy coordination.

Why in news?

The frameworks $200 billion funding target contrasts sharply with Earth Tracks report estimating $2.6 trillion in harmful subsidies, denoting financing challenges.

Macro Drain

A macro drain is a large-scale urban drainage channel designed to carry stormwater away from populated areas to prevent flooding. These drains are typically wider and deeper than micro or minor drains and form part of a city’s primary flood management infrastructure. Macro drains often connect to natural water bodies like rivers, lakes, or the sea. In Indian cities like Chennai, macro drains face challenges such as encroachments, silt buildup, and pollution, which reduce their effectiveness. Regular maintenance, including desilting and clearing blockages, is essential to maintain their functionality during heavy rains.

Why in news?

Captain Cotton Canal is classified as one of Chennais 29 macro drains requiring urgent maintenance to improve flood control during the 2024 monsoon.

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)

Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) is a process that organizes human activities in marine areas to reduce conflicts and environmental impacts. It integrates ecological, economic, and social objectives to manage marine resources sustainably. MSP involves mapping habitats, species distributions, fishing zones, and shipping routes to designate protected areas or usage zones. It supports the design and expansion of Marine Protected Areas like Banco Volcán by ensuring balanced use and conservation. MSP is increasingly used worldwide to address challenges such as overfishing, habitat degradation, and climate change impacts on oceans.

Why in news?

MSP was a key tool in successfully expanding Banco Volcán MPA, demonstrating its role in achieving large-scale ocean conservation targets like 30×30.

Mekong River Basin Dams

The Mekong River basin contains over 700 dams, including hydropower and irrigation structures. Major dams are located in China, Laos, and Cambodia. These dams alter natural flow regimes, sediment transport, and fish migration patterns. While providing energy and water management benefits, they have caused ecological impacts such as habitat fragmentation and fish population declines. Many dams lack adequate mitigation measures like fish passages. The basin supports one of the worlds richest inland fisheries, vital to millions of peoples livelihoods. Dam construction continues amid debates balancing development and environmental conservation.

Why in news?

The Mekong basins dam proliferation without sufficient fish passages poses risks to migratory fish species and regional food security.

Mekong River Tributaries

The Mekong River has over 20 major tributaries across Southeast Asia, including the Tonle Sap, Mun, and Sesan rivers. These tributaries provide critical spawning and nursery habitats for many fish species, including migratory and endemic species. Seasonal flooding of tributaries supports rich biodiversity and sustains fisheries that millions depend on for food and income. Tributaries are vulnerable to threats such as dam construction, pollution, and land-use changes, which impact fish migration and water quality. Effective management of tributaries is essential for maintaining the ecological health of the entire Mekong River basin.

Why in news?

IFReDIs research in Mekong tributaries helps monitor fish populations and supports strategies to protect aquatic biodiversity amid increasing development pressures.

Melanistic Leopards

Melanistic leopards are a genetic variant of the common leopard (Panthera pardus) characterized by a black coat caused by a recessive allele increasing melanin production. This trait is more common in dense tropical forests where dark coloration provides camouflage. Despite the dark coat, their typical rosette patterns are visible under certain lighting. Melanism occurs due to a mutation in the gene ASIP (agouti signaling protein). These leopards are found in parts of Asia and Africa, with higher frequencies in humid forest environments. They are not a distinct species but represent a polymorphism within the leopard population.

Why in news?

Their confirmed presence in Odishas forests was brought into light in the All Odisha Leopard Estimation-2024 survey, drawing attention to forest health and conservation challenges.

Meloxicam

Meloxicam is an NSAID used as a safer alternative to diclofenac in veterinary medicine, especially for livestock. It selectively inhibits cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) more than COX-1, reducing gastrointestinal side effects. Unlike diclofenac, meloxicam does not cause kidney failure in vultures that consume treated carcasses, making it vulture-safe. It has a longer half-life, allowing once-daily dosing. Meloxicam is used globally in both human and veterinary medicine. Its introduction helped mitigate the ecological damage caused by diclofenac in South Asia, contributing to the gradual recovery of vulture populations.

Why in news?

Meloxicam gained attention as a safer veterinary NSAID after diclofenacs ban due to its minimal impact on vultures.

Metabolic Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

Metabolic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) include chronic conditions like diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases caused by metabolic dysfunction. They are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Metabolic NCDs often share risk factors such as unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and genetic predisposition. Their prevalence is rising sharply in developing countries due to urbanization and lifestyle changes. Early detection and management are crucial to prevent complications. Public health programs focus on reducing risk factors and improving awareness to curb the growing burden of these diseases.

Why in news?

The INDIAB study reports on the prevalence of metabolic NCDs in Jammu, emphasizing the increasing health burden and the need for preventive health measures.

Methane Hydrates

Methane hydrates are crystalline structures where methane molecules are trapped within a lattice of water ice. They form under high pressure and low temperature conditions, typically found beneath permafrost or in ocean sediments. These hydrates store vast amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Destabilization of methane hydrates due to warming or pressure changes can release methane explosively or gradually into the atmosphere. Methane hydrate deposits are considered both a potential energy resource and a climate risk. Their stability is sensitive to environmental changes, especially in Arctic regions.

Why in news?

Methane hydrates beneath Siberian permafrost are destabilizing, causing explosive methane releases linked to climate change and permafrost thaw.

Methane Seeps in the Arctic Ocean

Methane seeps are natural underwater sources where methane gas escapes from the seabed into the ocean and atmosphere. In the Arctic Ocean, they often occur where permafrost is thawing. Methane is produced by microbial decomposition of organic matter trapped in sediments. These seeps can form bubbles, plumes, or chimneys visible on sonar. Methane is a greenhouse gas over 25 times more potent than CO₂ over 100 years. Arctic methane seeps contribute to climate feedback but their total emissions remain uncertain. Some seeps support unique chemosynthetic ecosystems independent of sunlight.

Why in news?

Methane seeps near the Canadian Beaufort Sea were linked to newly discovered underwater craters, denoting risks of increased greenhouse gas release from thawing permafrost.

Microclimate Buffering Effect

The microclimate buffering effect refers to the capacity of forest canopies to moderate local temperature extremes and variability. This effect results in cooler maximum temperatures and warmer minimum temperatures beneath the canopy compared to open environments. It occurs due to canopy shading, evapotranspiration, and reduced wind exposure. This buffering supports species with narrow thermal tolerance and maintains ecosystem stability. The effect varies with forest structure, species composition, and external climate conditions. Disruption of this effect by climate change or deforestation can increase exposure of understory species to harmful thermal stress.

Why in news?

Studies reveal that the microclimate buffering effect in tropical forests is weakening, exposing species to unfamiliar temperature fluctuations beneath the canopy.

Microclimates

Microclimates are localized atmospheric zones where climate conditions differ from the surrounding area. They can vary due to topography, vegetation, water bodies, or urban development. Microclimates affect temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation at a small scale. For example, rocky hillocks create warmer microclimates by absorbing and radiating heat. Urban microclimates often result in heat islands. Microclimates influence agriculture, wildlife habitats, and human comfort. They can persist for hours, days, or seasons depending on local factors.

Why in news?

Heat-retentive barren rocky hillocks in Tamil Nadu altered local microclimates, worsening heatwave impacts in 2024.

Microcystin Toxins

Microcystins are a group of cyclic peptides produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria during harmful algal blooms. They primarily affect the liver and are potent hepatotoxins. Microcystins can contaminate drinking water, posing risks to humans and animals. These toxins are stable under heat and light, making them difficult to remove by conventional water treatment. Aerosolized microcystins can travel through the air, potentially causing respiratory issues when inhaled. Detection of airborne microcystins is rare and has only recently been documented in freshwater lake environments, expanding concerns beyond water ingestion to inhalation exposure routes.

Why in news?

Microcystin toxins were detected in the air around Grand Lake St. Marys in 2023, marking one of the first regional findings of aerosolized algal toxins and prompting further health impact studies.

Micronutrient Premix for Rice Fortification

Micronutrient premix is a carefully formulated blend of vitamins and minerals added to staple foods to combat nutritional deficiencies. For rice fortification, premixes typically include iron (often in forms like ferrous sulfate or ferric pyrophosphate), folic acid, and vitamin B12. The premix must be heat stable and compatible with extrusion processing. Particle size and homogeneity are controlled to ensure uniform distribution in fortified rice kernels. Premixes are produced under strict quality standards to maintain bioavailability and shelf life. They play important role in addressing anemia and other micronutrient deficiencies in populations relying on rice as a staple.

Why in news?

Micronutrient premixes are the core ingredient in fortified rice kernels, supporting Indias extended rice fortification program to improve public health.

Micronutrient Stability in Cooking

Micronutrient stability refers to the ability of vitamins and minerals to retain their potency during food processing, storage, and cooking. Heat, moisture, and light can degrade many micronutrients, reducing their nutritional value. Fortified rice kernels produced by extrusion technology maintain micronutrient stability due to controlled processing conditions and protective encapsulation within the kernel matrix. This ensures that nutrients like iron and folic acid remain bioavailable after typical cooking methods such as boiling or steaming. Stability during storage is also enhanced, preventing nutrient loss over months.

Why in news?

Micronutrient stability is a key advantage of extrusion technology in Indias fortified rice program, ensuring effective nutrient delivery to populations.

Monsoon Rainfall Anomalies

Monsoon rainfall anomalies refer to deviations from the long-term average rainfall during the monsoon season, which impacts agriculture, water resources, and urban life in India. These anomalies are measured using detailed historical rainfall data, such as that from the Colaba Coastal Observatory. Positive anomalies indicate higher-than-average rainfall, often causing floods, while negative anomalies suggest drought conditions. About these anomalies helps in disaster preparedness and resource management. They are influenced by large-scale atmospheric phenomena like the Indian Ocean Dipole and El Niño-Southern Oscillation, which affect monsoon intensity and distribution.

Why in news?

October 2024 rainfall at Colaba Coastal Observatory showed a positive anomaly, surpassing average levels and contributing to Mumbais wettest October in two years.

Monsoon Variability

Monsoon variability refers to changes in the timing, intensity, and distribution of monsoon rains, especially in South Asia. It is influenced by factors such as sea surface temperatures, atmospheric circulation patterns, and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Variability affects agriculture, water resources, and disaster risk. The Indian monsoon system is particularly complex due to interactions between the Indian Ocean, Himalayan topography, and land-sea temperature contrasts. Research at IITM has enhanced understanding of monsoon onset and breaks, helping improve seasonal forecasts and climate resilience strategies.

Why in news?

Monsoon variability remains a critical focus at IITM as it directly impacts Indias agriculture and disaster management, with recent studies emphasizing the need for improved forecasting amidst climate change challenges.

Mormugao Port Authority

The Mormugao Port Authority manages the Mormugao Port, located on the west coast of India in Goa. Established in 1963, it is one of Indias major ports and primarily handles iron ore exports, coal, and other bulk cargo. The port has a natural harbor and deep draft, allowing it to accommodate large vessels. It is strategically important for maritime trade in the Arabian Sea and has been actively modernizing infrastructure to improve efficiency and environmental sustainability, including launching initiatives like the Harit Shrey scheme to promote green shipping.

Why in news?

Mormugao Port Authority launched the Harit Shrey scheme in 2023 to incentivize environmentally friendly shipping, gaining international recognition for sustainable port management.

Mount Erebus

Mount Erebus is an active volcano located on Ross Island, Antarctica. It is the southernmost active volcano on Earth and has a persistent lava lake in its summit crater. Erebus is known for its unique volcanic gases, including rare emissions like gold dust particles. The volcano was first discovered in 1841 by explorer James Clark Ross and is named after one of his ships. Its continuous activity provides valuable data on volcanic processes in polar environments. Erebus’s volcanic activity is closely monitored by scientific teams due to its remote location and unusual geochemical emissions.

Why in news?

Mount Erebus made headlines due to its rare gold dust emissions, which GeologyHub helped explain, denoting the volcanos unique geological phenomena in October 2024.

Mpox (Monkeypox) Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC)

The Mpox outbreak was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) by WHO in 2024 due to its rapid spread across multiple countries. Mpox is caused by the Monkeypox virus, related to smallpox but less severe. The PHEIC designation triggers international coordination and resource mobilization to contain the outbreak. It allows accelerated regulatory pathways like EUL for diagnostics and vaccines. The 2024 outbreak saw increased human-to-human transmission and atypical clinical presentations. The PHEIC status remains until the outbreak is controlled or deemed no longer a global threat.

Why in news?

WHO declared the 2024 Mpox outbreak a PHEIC, prompting emergency measures including EUL approvals for diagnostic tests like the Alinity m MPXV assay.

Mpox (Monkeypox) Vaccination Campaigns in Eastern Africa

Mpox, formerly known as monkeypox, is a viral zoonotic disease endemic in parts of Central and West Africa. It causes symptoms similar to smallpox but is less severe. The recent outbreaks in eastern Africa have led to targeted vaccination campaigns to control spread, particularly in regions like North Kivu province. Vaccines used include modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) and ACAM2000. Campaigns focus on high-risk populations and healthcare workers. Mpox transmission occurs through close contact with infected animals or humans. Surveillance and vaccination efforts are crucial in preventing wider epidemics in vulnerable areas.

Why in news?

Goma hosted the inaugural mpox vaccination ceremony in the DRC, marking a key step in controlling the outbreak in eastern Africa.

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve is located in the Western Ghats of India, spanning Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. It covers approximately 321 square kilometers and is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The reserve is known for its rich biodiversity, including tigers, elephants, and a variety of herpetofauna. It features dry deciduous and moist deciduous forests and serves as a critical wildlife corridor. The area has a monsoon-influenced climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Mudumalai supports several endangered species and is a focus of conservation programs aimed at habitat preservation and species protection.

Why in news?

The reserve’s recent herpetofauna survey revealed new species records, underscoring its significance as a biodiversity hotspot and the importance of ongoing ecological research.

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Masinagudi Division

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, located in Tamil Nadu, is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Masinagudi Division is known for its rich biodiversity, including tigers, elephants, and many endemic reptiles and amphibians. The reserve covers approximately 321 square kilometers and features dry deciduous forests, grasslands, and rocky hills. It is a critical habitat for conservation and wildlife research. The area supports ongoing herpetofauna surveys, which have led to discoveries of new reptile species, including geckos and snakes. The reserve plays role in regional biodiversity preservation.

Why in news?

The 2024 herpetofauna survey in the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve’s Masinagudi Division led to the discovery of a potential new Cnemaspis gecko species.

Mulching

Mulching involves covering soil surfaces with organic or inorganic materials like straw, leaves, plastic, or wood chips. It reduces evaporation, conserves soil moisture, suppresses weeds, and regulates soil temperature. Organic mulches decompose over time, enriching soil nutrients and improving structure. In arid and semi-arid regions, mulching can increase water use efficiency by up to 50%. It also helps prevent soil erosion by protecting the surface from rain impact. Mulching is a low-cost, simple practice widely used in climate-resilient agriculture to mitigate drought effects and improve crop resilience against heat stress.

Why in news?

Mulching is promoted in India as a climate-resilient farming technique to combat October heat stress and conserve soil moisture for late-harvest crops.

Multifactorial Disease

A multifactorial disease results from the interaction of multiple genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors rather than a single cause. Dry eye syndrome is classified as such because it involves decreased tear production, increased tear evaporation, inflammation, and external contributors like pollution and screen time. These factors combine to destabilize the tear film and damage the ocular surface. Multifactorial diseases often require comprehensive management addressing all contributing elements for effective treatment.

Why in news?

Dry eye syndromes multifactorial nature explains the complex rise in cases in Bengaluru, linked to various lifestyle and environmental factors.

Multifactorial Ecological Data Analysis

Multifactorial ecological data analysis involves examining multiple environmental variables simultaneously to understand their combined effects on ecosystems. Techniques like gradient-boosted models allow researchers to analyze complex, non-linear interactions, moving beyond simple bivariate correlations. This approach is essential for studying ecosystems where factors such as temperature, precipitation, soil chemistry, and hydrology interact dynamically. It improves prediction accuracy and ecological understanding by integrating diverse datasets. Such analyses support conservation efforts, resource management, and climate impact assessments by revealing how multiple stressors jointly influence species growth, distribution, and ecosystem function.

Why in news?

The study used multifactorial analysis to assess how temperature, precipitation, and tidal water levels collectively influence tree ring growth in coastal forests, reflecting complex environmental interactions.

Mundra Thermal Power Station

The Mundra Thermal Power Station, operated by Tata Power and Adani Power, is one of India’s largest ICB plants. It uses imported coal primarily from Indonesia and South Africa. The plant has a capacity of over 4,000 MW, making it contributor to Indias power grid. Mundra was among the first Indian plants to adopt supercritical technology for higher efficiency. It faces logistical challenges due to coal import dependency and coastal location, requiring robust port infrastructure. The plants operational costs are sensitive to international coal price fluctuations and shipping conditions.

Why in news?

Mundra Thermal Power Station is part of the 15 ICB plants directed to run at full capacity to mitigate domestic coal supply shortages and meet rising power demand.

Musi River Front Development Project

The Musi River Front Development Project is an urban renewal initiative aimed at revitalizing the Musi River corridor in Hyderabad. It focuses on environmental restoration, flood control, and urban infrastructure improvements along the riverbanks. The project includes the creation of parks, walkways, and commercial zones, balancing ecological conservation with economic development. It also incorporates traditional water management features like the Esi stream and reservoirs such as Himayatsagar. The initiative is part of Telanganas broader urban planning strategy to enhance quality of life and promote sustainable growth in Hyderabad.

Why in news?

The project was officially launched in 2024 by Telanganas Chief Minister, marking step in urban environmental management.

Musi River Redevelopment Project

The Musi River flows through Hyderabad, Telangana, and has faced severe pollution and encroachment issues. The redevelopment project aims to rejuvenate the river by removing illegal settlements, improving water quality, and creating public green spaces. Inspired by international urban river restoration models like Cheonggyecheon Stream, the project includes flood management, biodiversity enhancement, and sustainable urban planning. The initiative is part of Telanganas broader efforts to address environmental degradation and improve urban living conditions. It also involves community relocation and infrastructure upgrades to enhance resilience against climate impacts.

Why in news?

Telangana officials recently referenced the Cheonggyecheon Stream project as a benchmark while planning the ongoing Musi River redevelopment to rejuvenate the river and relocate communities.

Mycorrhizal Associations

Mycorrhizal associations are symbiotic relationships between fungi and plant roots, enhancing nutrient and water absorption. Two main types are ectomycorrhizae, common in boreal forests, and arbuscular mycorrhizae, widespread in tropical and temperate zones. These fungi extend root surface area via hyphae, increasing access to phosphorus, nitrogen, and water. Mycorrhizae can protect plants from pathogens and environmental stress. They form networks connecting different plants, facilitating nutrient sharing and communication. Fossil evidence shows mycorrhizal relationships date back over 400 million years, playing a critical role in plant colonization of land.

Why in news?

Mycorrhizal associations are central to the role of boreal fungi in enhancing forest carbon sequestration, discussed at COP16 biodiversity talks.

Najafgarh Agrivoltaic Demonstration Site

The Najafgarh Agrivoltaic Demonstration Site is an experimental location near New Delhi showcasing agrivoltaic technology. It integrates solar photovoltaic panels with crop cultivation to optimize land use. The site tests various solar panel placements to balance sunlight for crops and energy generation. It serves as a practical model for farmers and policymakers to understand agrivoltaic benefits and challenges. The demonstration site helps refine technology and farming practices for diverse Indian agro-climatic zones, promoting scalable solutions to increase farmer income and renewable energy production simultaneously.

Why in news?

This site was featured during the Seventh ISA Assembly in 2024 as a key example of agrivoltaic innovation in India.

National Agriculture Code (NAC)

The National Agriculture Code (NAC) is a framework being developed to standardize agricultural practices across India. It aims to integrate best practices, technology adoption, and quality standards for farming operations. The NAC includes guidelines on crop management, soil health, irrigation, and input usage such as fertilizers and pesticides. It is designed to enhance productivity, sustainability, and farmer income. The code will be supported by demonstration farms and training programs. NAC is expected to facilitate uniformity in agricultural processes nationwide and promote scientific farming methods. It is part of the broader effort by BIS to regulate and improve the agriculture sector.

Why in news?

BIS is currently drafting the National Agriculture Code and planning demonstration farms to standardize and modernize Indian agriculture.

National Green Hydrogen Mission (India)

The National Green Hydrogen Mission was launched by India in 2023 to promote the production and utilization of green hydrogen. It aims to produce five million metric tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030. The mission requires an estimated investment of ₹8 lakh crore (approximately $100 billion USD). It focuses on leveraging India’s abundant solar and wind energy resources for cost-effective green hydrogen production. This initiative supports decarbonizing hard-to-electrify sectors such as steel, refining, and heavy transport. The mission aligns with Indias goal to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070 and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

Why in news?

Indias National Green Hydrogen Mission is brought into light due to its ambitious production target and investment needs discussed at COP29 for climate action funding.

National Green Tribunal Act (NGT Act)

The National Green Tribunal Act, enacted in 2010, provides for the establishment of the National Green Tribunal to handle environmental disputes. The NGT has the power to enforce legal rights related to the environment and to provide speedy justice. Penalties imposed by adjudicating officers under the EPA are independent of the NGTs decisions, meaning separate legal processes can occur simultaneously. The NGT focuses on judicial adjudication, while EPA adjudicating officers handle administrative penalties. This dual system aims to strengthen environmental governance but has created complexities in enforcement without proper coordination.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court emphasized the distinction between EPA adjudicating officers and NGT penalties, noting enforcement gaps due to the absence of appointed officers under the EPA.

National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways responsible for the development, maintenance, and management of national highways. Established in 1988, NHAI implements various projects including highway construction, toll collection, and modernization. It has pioneered initiatives like the Green Highways Initiative and the Bharatmala project. NHAI also promotes sustainable infrastructure by incorporating environmental safeguards and renewable energy solutions in highway projects, making it a key player in India’s transportation and environmental policy framework.

Why in news?

NHAI is in the news due to its role in implementing the Green Highways Initiative and supporting the newly launched Humsafar Policy focused on sustainable highway infrastructure.

National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI)

The National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI) is an industry body representing solar energy stakeholders across India. Established to promote solar energy development, it works on policy advocacy, market facilitation, and stakeholder coordination. NSEFI plays a key role in shaping Indias solar mission by engaging with government bodies and private players. It supports innovation in solar technologies and promotes sustainable solar integration, including agrivoltaics. NSEFI also organizes events, training, and awareness programs to increase solar adoption and improve the sectors growth trajectory in Indias renewable energy landscape.

Why in news?

NSEFI is part of the India Agrivoltaics Alliance, participating in the 2024 ISA Assembly to promote solar-agriculture hybrid systems.

National Water Awards

The National Water Awards were instituted by the Government of India to recognize exemplary water conservation and management efforts by individuals, organizations, and institutions. They cover categories like water-use efficiency, river rejuvenation, groundwater management, and public awareness. The awards encourage innovative water-saving technologies and sustainable practices. Winners receive cash prizes and certificates, promoting replication of successful models. The awards have been presented annually since 2019, with increasing participation from states and private sectors, denoting India’s commitment to tackling water scarcity and pollution challenges through collaborative efforts.

Why in news?

The 5th National Water Awards 2023 winners were announced by the Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation, celebrating outstanding water management initiatives nationwide.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

NDCs are climate action plans submitted by countries under the Paris Agreement, outlining their targets and strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change. These contributions are updated every five years to increase ambition. The NDCs include commitments on mitigation, adaptation, and support needs. They serve as the primary mechanism for countries to communicate their efforts and progress. The first round of updated NDCs is due in 2025, following the insights from the first GST at COP28.

Why in news?

The 2023 GST outcomes at COP28 influence the revision and enhancement of NDCs, which are due for submission in 2025.

Native Transmission Chain

The native transmission chain refers to the continuous, local cycle of disease transmission involving a vector, pathogen, and host within a specific geographic area. For malaria, this means the local Anopheles mosquitoes transmit parasites between humans without external reintroduction. Breaking this chain requires sustained interventions to prevent mosquito breeding, reduce human-mosquito contact, and treat infected individuals. The World Health Organization mandates at least three consecutive years of no native transmission to certify a country as malaria-free. This concept is crucial in disease eradication programs to ensure no hidden reservoirs or reintroductions persist.

Why in news?

Egypts malaria-free status was confirmed by proving the native transmission chain of malaria by Anopheles mosquitoes had been interrupted for three years.

Nature Conservation Index

The Nature Conservation Index is a metric used to evaluate a countrys performance in biodiversity preservation and environmental protection. It incorporates factors like protected area coverage, species conservation status, and policy effectiveness. The index is compiled by environmental organizations using data from national reports, satellite imagery, and biodiversity databases. It marks gaps in conservation efforts and informs global environmental policy. Countries with large biodiversity but low protection measures score poorly. The index helps track progress toward international conservation goals, such as those set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Why in news?

The index revealed Indias marine conservation ranks low due to the absence of protected areas within its EEZ, spotlighting urgent conservation needs.

Nature Conservation Index (NCI)

The Nature Conservation Index (NCI) is a newly developed global tool designed to assess and rank countries on their environmental conservation efforts. It integrates data on biodiversity protection, habitat conservation, and sustainable resource management. The NCI combines ecological indicators with policy effectiveness metrics to provide a comprehensive overview of national conservation performance. Launched in October 2024, it aims to guide policymakers and environmental organizations in identifying strengths and weaknesses in conservation strategies. The index is a product of international collaboration led by the Goldman Sonnenfeldt School of Sustainability and Climate Change.

Why in news?

The NCI was released in October 2024, ranking India and other countries on their conservation efforts for the first time, denoting global environmental performance.

NEWater Program

The NEWater program is Singapores innovative water recycling initiative that treats wastewater to high standards, making it safe for drinking and industrial use. Launched in the early 2000s, it helps Singapore reduce reliance on imported water and increase water self-sufficiency. NEWater undergoes rigorous microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and ultraviolet disinfection. It supplies about 40% of Singapores water demand. The program includes public education campaigns to build trust in recycled water. NEWaters success has influenced water management policies in other water-scarce regions globally, demonstrating the viability of reclaimed water as a sustainable resource.

Why in news?

Referenced indirectly through Tharman Shanmugaratnams leadership, the NEWater program exemplifies innovative water management strategies promoted by the Commissions 2024 report.

NHM Study on Biodiversity and Industrial Impact

The NHM (Natural History Museum) study is a recent comprehensive assessment of biodiversity threats in protected areas globally. It uses satellite data and field surveys to quantify the impact of industrial activities such as mining, oil and gas extraction, and logging. The study found that protected areas with overlapping industrial concessions show a decline in species richness and ecosystem health. It marks the paradox of protected status failing to prevent habitat degradation when economic interests are prioritized. The study calls for stronger governance and integrated conservation policies to mitigate these impacts.

Why in news?

The NHM study brought attention to Conkouati-Douli National Park as a case where industrial concessions within a protected area exacerbate biodiversity decline, illustrating a global conservation challenge.

NHM Study on Biodiversity Decline

The NHM (Natural History Museum) study analyzed biodiversity trends within protected and unprotected Critical Biodiversity Areas. It found that species loss and ecosystem degradation are worse inside protected CBAs than outside. The study attributes this to ineffective management, enforcement gaps, and ongoing habitat fragmentation. It challenges the assumption that protected status alone guarantees biodiversity preservation. The NHM study emphasizes the need for improved conservation strategies focusing on ecosystem-wide approaches and addressing threats like resource extraction within protected zones.

Why in news?

The NHM studys findings raised alarms about the failure of current protected area management to halt biodiversity loss in Critical Biodiversity Areas.

Nightlight Intensity in Wildlife Studies

Nightlight intensity measures artificial light levels at night, often from urban or industrial sources. It is used as an ecological variable to assess human disturbance in wildlife habitats. Increased nightlight correlates with altered animal behavior, disrupted circadian rhythms, and habitat avoidance. Remote sensing satellites like the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) provide global nightlight data. In habitat suitability models, nightlight intensity helps quantify anthropogenic impact on nocturnal and crepuscular species, influencing conservation planning by identifying areas with minimal light pollution critical for wildlife activity.

Why in news?

Nightlight intensity is included as a key variable in the new co-variate scoring method to improve wildlife population estimates and habitat quality assessments.

Nilgiri tit butterfly (Machlolophus aplonotus)

The Nilgiri tit butterfly, scientifically known as Machlolophus aplonotus, is an endemic butterfly species native to the Nilgiri Hills in southern India. It depends on specific larval host plants, such as Eulophia epidendraea, for reproduction. The butterfly’s life cycle is closely linked to the microhabitats of the Nilgiris, including rocky slopes and grassland ecosystems. It exhibits specialized egg-laying behavior on orchid inflorescences. Its population status is sensitive to habitat changes due to its narrow ecological niche. Conservation of the Nilgiri tit butterfly is tied to protecting its host plants and associated grass species.

Why in news?

The Nilgiri tit butterflys larval host plant was identified for the first time, aiding conservation strategies for this endemic species in the Nilgiris.

Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve

The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, established in 1986, is India’s first biosphere reserve, covering approximately 5,520 square kilometers across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka. It encompasses the Nilgiri Hills and parts of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage site. The reserve supports diverse ecosystems, including tropical evergreen forests, montane shola-grassland complexes, and moist deciduous forests. It contains over 3,300 species of flowering plants and numerous endangered species like the Nilgiri tahr and lion-tailed macaque. The reserve also includes several indigenous tribal groups such as the Toda and Kotas, preserving ancient cultural practices.

Why in news?

The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve is involved in wildlife corridor conservation efforts threatened by deforestation near Bhadra Tiger Reserve, affecting species migration and human-wildlife interaction.

Nilgiris Region

The Nilgiris, part of the Western Ghats in Southern India, is a biodiversity hotspot with over 3,000 plant species and numerous endemic animals. It comprises rolling hills, tea plantations, and tropical forests. The region is home to the indigenous Toda tribe, known for their unique buffalo herding culture. The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve, established in 1986, covers over 5,500 square kilometers and includes protected areas like Mudumalai and Mukurthi National Parks. It faces threats from habitat fragmentation due to expanding agriculture and tourism. The area has a high density of Asian elephants, contributing to frequent human-elephant interactions.

Why in news?

The Nilgiris is in focus due to increased human-elephant conflicts linked to deforestation and habitat loss, with over 600 incidents recorded between 2008 and 2011.

Nitrogen Dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas produced mainly by combustion processes such as vehicle engines and power plants. It is a key component of urban air pollution and contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone and smog. NO2 exposure irritates the respiratory system and can worsen asthma and other lung diseases. Studies show NO2 causes oxidative stress and inflammation in blood vessels, which contributes to elevated blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. It is monitored globally as an indicator of traffic-related pollution and regulated to limit human exposure, particularly in densely populated areas.

Why in news?

NO2 is mentioned due to its contribution to early-onset hypertension in young adults, linking environmental pollution to increased cardiovascular risks.

Nitrous Oxide as a Greenhouse Gas

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential approximately 298 times that of CO2 over a 100-year period. It originates mainly from agricultural soil management, fossil fuel combustion, and certain industrial processes. N2O also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion. Its atmospheric concentration has increased by about 20% since pre-industrial times. Nitrous oxide has an atmospheric lifetime of around 114 years. Monitoring N2O is crucial for understanding climate change and ozone layer dynamics, and it is one of the key gases tracked by the GAW network.

Why in news?

N2O levels are included in the GAW network’s greenhouse gas data, contributing to the comprehensive assessment of atmospheric changes reported in 2023.

NOAAs Oceanic Niño Index (ONI)

The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) is the primary metric used by NOAA to monitor El Niño and La Niña events. It measures the three-month running average of sea surface temperature anomalies in the Niño 3.4 region of the Pacific Ocean. An ONI value of +0.5°C or higher for five consecutive overlapping three-month periods signals an El Niño event. The index helps predict global climate impacts and guides early warning systems. ONI data is critical for agriculture, disaster preparedness, and water resource management worldwide.

Why in news?

NOAA’s ONI data confirmed the strength and duration of the 2023-2024 El Niño, denoting its role in the severe drought affecting southern Africa.

Noctiluca scintillans

Noctiluca scintillans is a species of dinoflagellate known for its bright bioluminescence, often called “sea sparkle.” It is a heterotrophic organism that feeds on phytoplankton and other small particles. This species forms large blooms, sometimes causing red tides that can deplete oxygen and harm marine life. Unlike many dinoflagellates, Noctiluca does not have chloroplasts but can harbor symbiotic algae. Its bioluminescence results from a luciferin-luciferase reaction triggered by mechanical stimulation. It thrives in nutrient-rich, warm coastal waters and is an indicator of environmental changes such as eutrophication and pollution.

Why in news?

Noctiluca scintillans caused the bioluminescent waves observed off Chennais coast in October 2024, attracting attention to coastal ecosystem health and marine biodiversity.

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in BRICS

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and chronic respiratory diseases are the leading causes of death in BRICS countries. Rapid urbanization, aging populations, and lifestyle changes contribute to rising NCD rates. BRICS nations face unique challenges due to disparities in healthcare access and economic inequality. Efforts to control NCDs include public health campaigns, improving healthcare infrastructure, and adopting international guidelines. Tobacco use, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and pollution are major risk factors. Monitoring NCD trends is crucial for policy planning and resource allocation in these emerging economies.

Why in news?

The recent study brought into light the increasing burden of cancer and other NCDs in BRICS countries, emphasizing the need for coordinated health strategies.

North Water Polynya

The North Water Polynya, also known as Pikialasorsuaq, is one of the largest and most biologically productive polynyas in the Arctic. It forms annually due to persistent winds and ocean currents preventing ice formation, creating an open-water habitat in winter. This environment supports a rich food web, including phytoplankton blooms that sustain large populations of marine mammals and seabirds. The polynya has been a key hunting and fishing area for Arctic Indigenous cultures for millennia. Its ecological importance extends to climate regulation and carbon cycling. The polynyas stability is sensitive to climate change, affecting Arctic biodiversity and human livelihoods.

Why in news?

The North Water Polynya’s walrus populations were genetically traced to artifacts in Norse Greenland, revealing historical trade and hunting practices in the Arctic during the Medieval Warm Period.

Northern Aravalli Leopard Wildlife Corridor

The Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor connects fragmented habitats across the Aravalli range, facilitating leopard movement between protected areas like Sariska and Asola Bhatti Sanctuary. This corridor spans multiple states and is vital for genetic diversity and reducing human-wildlife conflict by providing safe passage for leopards. It includes scrub forests, grasslands, and rocky outcrops, supporting a variety of fauna beyond leopards, such as jackals and hyenas. Conservation efforts focus on maintaining habitat connectivity despite urban encroachment and mining activities. The corridor’s health directly influences the survival of apex predators in the Northern Aravalli region.

Why in news?

Conservationists and government bodies are focusing on protecting the Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor following reports of increased leopard sightings near urban areas, raising concerns over habitat disruption and human safety.

Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs)

Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) are scientifically established benchmarks used globally to indicate the daily intake levels of essential nutrients required for maintaining good health. NRVs guide food labeling, dietary recommendations, and fortification programs. They help harmonize nutrition standards across countries, facilitating international trade and consumer protection. NRVs vary by age, sex, and physiological status and are critical in developing foods for special dietary uses, including infant formulas and medical nutrition. The CCNFSDU plays a key role in reviewing and updating NRVs based on current scientific evidence.

Why in news?

Discussions at the 44th CCNFSDU session included updating NRVs for young children, with India influencing new guidelines that impact global nutrition standards.

Nyiragongo Volcano

Nyiragongo is an active stratovolcano in the Virunga Mountains, located in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo near Goma. It has one of the world’s largest lava lakes, often visible at the summit crater. The volcano’s lava is unusually fluid due to low silica content, allowing it to flow rapidly. Its 2021 eruption caused destruction, with lava flows reaching Goma city, destroying homes and infrastructure. Nyiragongo’s eruptions are notable for their speed and intensity, making evacuation challenging. The volcano’s activity is closely monitored by the Goma Volcano Observatory, established in 2002.

Why in news?

Nyiragongo’s 2021 eruption severely impacted Goma, prompting humanitarian and recovery efforts amid ongoing regional instability.

Obesity Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines in China

Chinas first standardized guidelines for obesity diagnosis and treatment were published by the National Health Commission in 2024. These guidelines define obesity thresholds based on body mass index (BMI) specific to the Chinese population and recommend treatment protocols including lifestyle changes, medication, and surgery. The guidelines aim to address rising obesity rates linked to urbanization and dietary changes. They emphasize early diagnosis, prevention, and integrated care to reduce complications like diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This marks step in public health policy, aligning China with global standards for obesity management.

Why in news?

The guidelines were issued to combat the growing health risks of obesity in China, marking a milestone in national health policy.

Offshore Wind Energy in India

Indias offshore wind energy sector is in an emerging phase, with potential estimated at 70 GW along its coastline. The main sites include Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. Offshore wind farms use turbines installed in ocean waters to generate electricity, which has higher and more consistent wind speeds than onshore. India has initiated pilot projects and is exploring partnerships for technology transfer. Offshore wind energy is seen as a key renewable resource to reduce carbon emissions and meet Indias climate goals. Challenges include high initial investment, grid connectivity, and environmental impact assessments.

Why in news?

Offshore wind energy projects are part of Indias Blue Economy focus, mentioned in connection with renewable energy expansion during the Cruise Bharat Mission launch.

Oil and Gas Concessions in Protected Areas

Oil and gas concessions are legal permits granted to companies for exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons. When these concessions overlap with protected areas, they create complex conflicts between conservation goals and industrial development. Globally, over 20% of protected terrestrial areas have overlapping resource extraction rights. Concessions often lead to habitat degradation through infrastructure development, pollution, and increased human activity. In Africa, concessions inside parks like Conkouati-Douli are particularly controversial due to the presence of endangered species and fragile ecosystems. Regulatory frameworks vary widely, and enforcement is often weak, exacerbating environmental risks.

Why in news?

The NHM study cited the presence of oil and gas concessions within Conkouati-Douli National Park as a key factor in accelerating biodiversity loss in protected areas.

Oil Cake

Oil cake is the solid residue left after oil extraction from oilseeds like soybeans, sunflower, and groundnuts. It is widely used as animal feed due to its high protein content. Oil cake also serves as an organic fertilizer because of its nutrient-rich composition. It varies in texture and nutrient profile depending on the seed source and extraction method. In some regions, oil cake is further processed to improve digestibility for livestock. It is distinct from oil meal, which is more finely ground. The EUDR includes oil cake among regulated products to prevent deforestation-linked imports.

Why in news?

Oil cake is one of the products covered by the European Union Deforestation Regulation, which aims to ensure imports do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation.

Oil Palm Cultivation in Assam

Oil palm cultivation involves growing the oil palm tree, Elaeis guineensis, primarily for its oil-rich fruit. Assam’s climate and soil are considered moderately suitable for oil palm, which can yield more oil per hectare than traditional oilseeds. The crop requires well-drained soils and consistent rainfall, conditions found in parts of Assam. Oil palm plantations contribute to rural employment and can improve farmers’ incomes. However, expansion must balance with biodiversity conservation due to potential impacts on forested areas. Assams focus on oil palm aims to reduce dependency on imported edible oils and enhance local self-reliance in edible oil production.

Why in news?

Assams Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma is promoting oil palm cultivation to boost the states edible oil self-sufficiency and reduce imports, aligning with economic and agricultural modernization goals.

Olive Ridley Sea Turtle

The Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) is the smallest and most abundant sea turtle species, known for its unique mass nesting called “arribada.” It nests primarily on the east coast of India, especially Odishas beaches. They migrate thousands of kilometers to nest and are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. Olive Ridleys have a distinctive heart-shaped shell and primarily feed on jellyfish and snails. Conservation efforts focus on protecting nesting sites from poaching, artificial lighting, and habitat destruction. Bhitarkanika National Park is important nesting ground for these turtles.

Why in news?

The nesting habitat of Olive Ridley turtles in Bhitarkanika National Park faces risks from Cyclone Danas impending storm surges and coastal disruption.

Ornithophilic Mosquitoes

Ornithophilic mosquitoes are species that preferentially feed on birds rather than mammals or humans. This feeding preference influences the transmission dynamics of bird-associated pathogens like West Nile virus and avian malaria. Ornithophilic mosquitoes often breed in habitats near bird populations, such as wetlands or forested areas. Their feeding behavior can limit direct human infection but sustains virus reservoirs in bird communities. Some ornithophilic species may occasionally bite humans, acting as bridge vectors. The term derives from Greek, where “ornitho-” means bird and “-philic” means loving, describing their ecological niche within vector-borne disease cycles.

Why in news?

Ornithophilic mosquitoes are relevant due to their role in the spread of West Nile virus by maintaining infection cycles among birds in regions experiencing rising WNV cases.

PADDD (Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing, and Degazettement)

PADDD refers to legal processes that reduce the protection status of designated conservation areas. Downgrading lessens restrictions, downsizing reduces the size, and degazettement removes protection entirely. PADDD events can be driven by economic development, resource extraction, or political pressures. They have occurred in over 70 countries, affecting millions of hectares of protected lands. PADDD undermines biodiversity conservation by increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. These events are often underreported and poorly monitored, complicating efforts to track global conservation progress.

Why in news?

The 2024 study identifies PADDD as a major threat to achieving the 30×30 conservation target by reversing protection gains.

Paddy-Wheat Crop Cycle

The paddy-wheat crop cycle is a dominant agricultural pattern in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, involving rice cultivation in the monsoon season followed by wheat in winter. This cycle maximizes land use and supports food security for millions. Paddy requires flooded fields, which leads to waterlogging, while wheat needs drier conditions. The cycles timing leaves little gap for soil recovery, increasing dependency on fertilizers and irrigation. The harvesting of paddy generates crop residue, which is often burned. This cycle shapes the regions economy, water use, and environmental challenges, including air pollution and groundwater depletion.

Why in news?

The paddy-wheat crop cycle is linked to the crop residue burning practices that exacerbate air pollution in the Indo-Gangetic Plain during the post-monsoon season.

Pandemic Fund Project

The Pandemic Fund Project is an international initiative aimed at enhancing global preparedness and response to pandemics by strengthening health security infrastructure. It supports countries in improving disease surveillance, early warning systems, and rapid response capabilities. The fund also promotes cross-sectoral collaboration, including animal health, to prevent zoonotic disease spillovers. It finances projects that build capacity in veterinary services, biosecurity, and public health integration. The project aligns with the One Health approach, recognizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health in pandemic prevention and control.

Why in news?

Indias plan to establish FMD Disease Free Zones is part of the Pandemic Fund Project to improve animal health security and pandemic preparedness.

Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary

Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary, situated in Gir Somnath district, Gujarat, spans roughly 40 square kilometers. It is part of the Gir Protected Area, established to protect the Asiatic lion and other species. The sanctuary features dry deciduous forests and supports species such as sambar deer, chinkara, and jungle cats. It plays role in maintaining ecological balance and serves as a corridor for wildlife movement between Gir National Park and surrounding habitats. The sanctuary was named after the Paniya tribal community historically inhabiting the region, known for their traditional forest knowledge.

Why in news?

Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary is included in discussions on expanding protected zones to enhance habitat connectivity for Asiatic lions and other fauna in Gir PA.

Panthera

Panthera is a global conservation organization focused on the protection of the worlds wild cats and their ecosystems. Founded in 2006, it works in over 30 countries to conserve species like tigers, lions, jaguars, leopards, and snow leopards. Panthera employs scientific research, technology-driven monitoring, and community engagement to combat threats such as poaching and habitat loss. It has pioneered the use of camera traps and genetic analysis to better understand cat populations and behavior. Panthera collaborates with governments, NGOs, and local communities to implement conservation strategies worldwide.

Why in news?

Panthera is a key international partner supporting Taiwans Clouded Leopard Association in its efforts to reintroduce the clouded leopard species to the island.

Paris Agreements 1.5°C Target

The 1.5°C target is a key goal of the Paris Agreement adopted in 2015, aiming to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to keep it under 1.5°C. The target is based on scientific consensus that warming beyond 1.5°C increases risks of extreme weather, sea level rise, and ecosystem loss. Achieving this target requires rapid, deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. The target influences national climate policies and international negotiations. It is monitored through emissions data, climate models, and global stocktakes every five years.

Why in news?

The 2023 Emissions Gap Report warns that current emission trends may cause the 1.5°C target to be missed within years without stronger global mitigation efforts.

Particulate Matter

Particulate matter (PM) refers to a mixture of tiny particles and droplets in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, and smoke. These particles are classified by size, with PM2.5 (particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers) being the most harmful as they penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream. Sources include vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and natural events like wildfires. PM exposure is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. Long-term exposure to PM can cause systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, which damages blood vessels and raises blood pressure. PM is regulated by environmental agencies worldwide to protect public health.

Why in news?

Particulate matter is brought into light due to its role in increasing hypertension rates among young adults, emphasizing the need for pollution control to reduce cardiovascular health risks.

Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10)

Particulate matter (PM) refers to tiny particles suspended in the air, with PM2.5 being particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers and PM10 smaller than 10 micrometers. PM2.5 can penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, causing respiratory and cardiovascular problems. PM10 includes dust, pollen, and mold spores, which can trigger allergies and asthma. These particles originate from sources like vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and natural events such as wildfires. PM2.5 is considered more dangerous due to its ability to bypass the bodys natural defenses and cause systemic health effects.

Why in news?

Rising PM2.5 levels have been linked to increased blood pressure in young people, denoting the health risks associated with poor air quality.

Paturiya Gidmuri Coal Block

The Paturiya Gidmuri coal block is part of the Hasdeo-Arand Coalfield but was surrendered by the former Chhattisgarh state government. It covers area within the tribal belt and is ecologically sensitive due to dense forests and biodiversity. The block’s surrender was influenced by strong opposition from local communities and environmental groups concerned about displacement and forest loss. Its status remains a point of contention, reflecting the broader conflict between development and conservation in mining regions. The block has not been auctioned or developed since its surrender.

Why in news?

Paturiya Gidmuri remains a symbol of resistance against coal mining in Hasdeo-Arand, denoting ongoing environmental and social disputes.

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is a market-based conservation approach where beneficiaries of ecosystem services provide financial incentives to landowners or resource stewards. PES schemes often target services like water purification, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity preservation. These programs encourage sustainable land management by compensating for activities that maintain or enhance ecosystem functions. PES can involve direct payments, tax breaks, or subsidies. The concept originated in the 1990s and has expanded globally, with notable examples including Costa Ricas national PES program. PES is increasingly applied to support green water conservation through agricultural and forest management practices.

Why in news?

PES schemes are gaining importance as mechanisms to finance green water flow restoration, brought into light in 2024 discussions on sustainable agriculture and ecosystem service valuation.

Peoples Biodiversity Registers (PBRs)

Peoples Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) are comprehensive records maintained at the local level documenting biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and community resources. Mandated by the Biodiversity Act 2002, PBRs include data on flora, fauna, habitats, and associated cultural practices. They serve as legal documents to protect indigenous knowledge and prevent biopiracy. Communities use PBRs to assert rights over biological resources and influence sustainable management decisions. Preparation of PBRs involves participatory methods, engaging local experts and elders. Despite their importance, many PBRs remain incomplete or outdated due to limited technical support and awareness.

Why in news?

BMCs are responsible for preparing Peoples Biodiversity Registers, but many have been ineffective, prompting calls for improved governance structures.

Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme

The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme is a market-based mechanism launched by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency in 2012 to improve energy efficiency in energy-intensive industries. It sets specific energy consumption targets for industries, allowing those that exceed targets to trade excess energy savings as credits. The scheme covers sectors like thermal power, cement, and steel, accounting for portion of India’s energy use. PAT has led to verified energy savings of over 30 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe). It is one of the first internationally recognized energy efficiency trading schemes in a developing country.

Why in news?

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is actively managing the PAT scheme as part of its expanded role in India’s international energy efficiency collaborations.

Peri-Urban Wildlife Habitats

Peri-urban wildlife habitats are natural or semi-natural areas located at the edges of urban and suburban zones. These areas serve as transitional zones where wildlife coexists with expanding human settlements. They often contain fragmented forests, grasslands, and wetlands, supporting diverse species including carnivores. Peri-urban habitats face pressures from urban sprawl, pollution, and increased human-wildlife interactions. Hybridisation between wild carnivores and domestic animals frequently occurs here due to overlapping territories. These habitats are critical for conservation as they act as buffers and corridors connecting wild populations with larger ecosystems.

Why in news?

The Pune forest department raised concerns about hybridisation risks in peri-urban areas affecting wild carnivores near expanding human settlements.

Permafrost Thaw-Induced Metal Mobilization

Permafrost thaw releases previously frozen metals like iron, mercury, and lead into Arctic watersheds. These metals bind to organic matter and sediments, entering streams during thaw seasons. Iron contributes to the orange-brown discoloration of water through oxidation processes. Mercury released from thawing permafrost can bioaccumulate in aquatic food webs, posing health risks. Metal mobilization increases with deeper and more prolonged thaw periods, influenced by rising Arctic temperatures. The process alters water chemistry and poses challenges for subsistence communities relying on local water and fish, as these metals can exceed safe consumption thresholds.

Why in news?

Metal mobilization from permafrost thaw is a key driver of Arctic stream discoloration and water contamination brought into light in the 2024 climate report.

Permanent Waterlogging

Permanent waterlogging refers to areas where water remains stagnant for extended periods, often due to low elevation, poor drainage, or altered river courses. This condition can degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity over time. It differs from temporary floods by its persistence and difficulty to drain naturally. In Bihar, permanent waterlogging affects large tracts of land, especially in the Gangetic plains, where natural drainage is disrupted by embankments or sediment deposition. It poses long-term challenges for farmers and local ecosystems, requiring specialized interventions beyond immediate flood relief.

Why in news?

Permanent waterlogging is a key flood category identified by FMISC, critical to understanding and managing Bihars ongoing flood-related challenges in 2024.

Permeable Pavements

Permeable pavements are specially designed surfaces that allow water to infiltrate through the material and into the ground below. They reduce stormwater runoff and help recharge groundwater. Common types include porous asphalt, pervious concrete, and interlocking pavers. Permeable pavements trap pollutants and sediments, improving water quality. They are used in urban areas to mitigate flooding and reduce heat island effects. Maintenance involves regular vacuuming to prevent clogging. Permeable pavements can reduce the need for traditional drainage systems and help manage urban water sustainably. Their use has increased in green infrastructure projects worldwide.

Why in news?

Permeable pavements are brought into light as a key green infrastructure element recommended to mitigate flood risks in Nepals 2024 monsoon disaster.

PM2.5

PM2.5 refers to particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometers, capable of penetrating deep into the lungs and bloodstream. These fine particles originate from combustion processes, industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and secondary atmospheric reactions. PM2.5 is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and premature deaths worldwide. Monitoring PM2.5 is crucial for air quality management, as it serves as a key indicator of pollution severity. The World Health Organization’s guideline limit for annual PM2.5 exposure is 5 µg/m³, often exceeded in urban Indian environments. Advanced forecasting models estimate PM2.5 concentrations to guide public health advisories and pollution control.

Why in news?

The IITM-Pune system forecasted PM2.5 concentration fluctuations in Delhi during October 2024, correlating pollution peaks with environmental and human activity changes.

PM2.5 (Particulate Matter 2.5)

PM2.5 refers to fine inhalable particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometers or smaller. These particles can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract and enter the bloodstream, causing serious health issues such as heart and lung diseases. Sources include combustion processes like vehicle emissions, brick kilns, and industrial activities. PM2.5 is measured in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) and is a key indicator of air pollution severity. It can remain suspended in the air for days to weeks and travel long distances. Regulatory agencies worldwide set limits to control PM2.5 exposure due to its health risks.

Why in news?

Brick kilns in Punjab release high levels of PM2.5, contributing to the hazardous smog conditions reported in October 2024.

Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary

Located in Tamil Nadu, Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary spans approximately 24.22 square kilometers. It is known for its unique saltwater wetlands and mangrove forests, providing habitat for migratory birds like the greater flamingo and Heuglins gull. The sanctuary supports endangered species such as the Indian blackbuck and the lesser adjutant stork. It is an important site for the conservation of coastal biodiversity and is part of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway, a major migratory bird route.

Why in news?

The sanctuary recently recorded the rare sighting of Heuglins gull, underscoring its role in supporting diverse migratory bird populations.

Polio Eradication in India

India reported its last case of wild poliovirus in January 2011 from Howrah, West Bengal. The eradication campaign involved extensive vaccination drives, especially in densely populated urban areas. India was declared polio-free by the WHO in 2014. The campaign used oral polio vaccine (OPV) and involved millions of health workers. Challenges included reaching migrant populations and overcoming vaccine hesitancy. The success is considered one of the largest public health achievements globally, reducing polio cases from over 100,000 in 1985 to zero indigenous cases by 2011.

Why in news?

Howrah was the location of Indias last reported polio case, marking a historic public health milestone.

Polio Follow-up at 60 Days

The 60-day follow-up examination is a critical step in AFP surveillance to differentiate poliovirus-induced paralysis from other causes. After initial paralysis detection, patients are reassessed two months later to observe recovery or progression. Poliovirus paralysis typically results in permanent weakness, while other causes may show improvement. This follow-up helps confirm true polio cases, ensuring accurate disease tracking and response. The practice is standardized by the World Health Organization and is essential for validating surveillance data in polio eradication programs globally.

Why in news?

The 60-day follow-up process was instrumental in confirming polio cases during the 2024 outbreaks, enabling precise targeting of vaccination and containment measures.

Polio Re-emergence in Conflict Zones

Polio is a highly infectious viral disease that can cause paralysis and death. It was declared eradicated in many regions by the early 2000s, but conflict zones like Gaza remain vulnerable due to disrupted health services and population displacement. The virus spreads primarily through contaminated water and poor sanitation. Interruptions in vaccination campaigns during conflicts create immunity gaps. Polio re-emergence after decades, as in Gaza, reflects the fragile health infrastructure and humanitarian challenges. Global eradication efforts rely heavily on maintaining high immunization coverage, which is difficult in unstable areas with ongoing violence and displacement.

Why in news?

Polios return to Gaza after 25 years marks the risks of infectious disease resurgence in conflict-affected regions with disrupted health services.

Probabilistic Forecasts

Probabilistic forecasts provide likelihood estimates rather than deterministic outcomes, expressing the chance of various climate events occurring. This approach is used by the Climate Prediction Center to communicate uncertainty in temperature, precipitation, drought, and tropical cyclone predictions. Probabilistic models combine multiple data sources and simulations to generate forecasts with confidence intervals, aiding decision-making in sectors sensitive to climate variability. This method improves risk management by allowing users to prepare for a range of possible scenarios rather than a single predicted outcome.

Why in news?

The CPCs probabilistic forecast indicates a 60% probability of La Niña forming, affecting seasonal climate predictions for late 2024.

Pronunciation and Voice-over Preparation for Cyclone Names

Each cyclone name on the North Indian Ocean list has pronunciations and voice-overs prepared before use. This ensures that meteorologists and media outlets pronounce names correctly and consistently during warnings. The preparation helps avoid confusion and enhances public understanding and awareness. Voice-overs are often used in official bulletins and broadcasts, aiding in communication across diverse linguistic populations in the region. This practice is part of the broader effort to improve disaster communication and public safety.

Why in news?

Cyclone Danas naming included pronunciation and voice-over preparation, demonstrating the protocol to aid dissemination and public awareness during cyclone warnings.

Pseudo-melanistic Tigers

Pseudo-melanistic tigers have a rare fur pattern characterized by excessive black striping that almost merges to create a dark appearance, unlike true melanism. This pattern is caused by a genetic variation affecting pigment distribution but does not make the tiger fully black. Pseudo-melanistic tigers are extremely rare and have been documented in certain tiger populations, including Similipal. Their presence provides vital information about tiger genetics and population health. These tigers are important for studying genetic diversity and evolutionary adaptations within isolated populations.

Why in news?

The AOTE-2023-24 survey revealed the presence of pseudo-melanistic tigers in Odisha, denoting the need for genetic management to maintain healthy tiger populations.

Psychological Impact of Tornado Exposure

Exposure to tornadoes can cause lasting psychological effects including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression. Studies show that survivors often experience heightened feelings of vulnerability and mistrust in institutions. The 2019 Midwest outbreak was linked to increased endorsement of conspiracy theories as a coping mechanism to explain unpredictable disasters. Community resilience varies, with social support and preparedness programs mitigating negative mental health outcomes. Research into disaster psychology emphasizes how direct exposure influences belief systems and risk perception, contributing to shifts in public attitudes toward government and natural phenomena.

Why in news?

The psychological consequences of the 2019 tornado outbreak include increased conspiracy beliefs, illustrating how trauma from natural disasters affects mental health and societal perceptions.

Pygmy Hog

The pygmy hog (Porcula salvania) is the smallest and rarest wild pig species, native exclusively to the grasslands of Assam. It measures about 55 cm in length and weighs only 6-9 kg. The species was once thought extinct until rediscovered in 1971. Pygmy hogs live in dense, tall grasslands and are highly sensitive to habitat disturbance. Their breeding season occurs between February and April, with females typically giving birth to 2-4 piglets. Conservation efforts include captive breeding and reintroduction, as their population remains critically endangered due to habitat loss and hunting.

Why in news?

The pygmy hog is central to conservation efforts led by the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, which supports breeding and reintroduction programs in Assams protected grasslands.

Ramsar Site

A Ramsar site is a wetland designated under the Ramsar Convention of 1971, an international treaty for wetland conservation. Sites are selected for their ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological importance. There are over 2,400 Ramsar sites worldwide covering more than 250 million hectares. The designation helps promote sustainable use and conservation, focusing on biodiversity protection and climate regulation. Ramsar sites often include mangroves, peatlands, coral reefs, and freshwater wetlands. India has over 50 Ramsar sites, including Bhitarkanika, Chilika Lake, and Keoladeo National Park.

Why in news?

Bhitarkanika National Park, a Ramsar site since 2002, is under threat from Cyclone Danas expected landfall, raising concerns about wetland preservation.

Rapid Deepening

Rapid deepening is a meteorological process where a tropical cyclones central pressure drops by at least 42 millibars within 24 hours, causing a swift increase in wind speeds and storm intensity. This phenomenon is fueled by warm ocean surface temperatures above 26.5°C, low vertical wind shear, and high atmospheric moisture. It often leads to hurricanes intensifying from minimal to major categories in a short period, complicating forecasting and emergency response. Rapid deepening is more common in the Atlantic and Pacific basins during peak hurricane season and has been linked to climate change effects increasing ocean heat content.

Why in news?

Rapid deepening caused Hurricane Milton to escalate from Category 1 to Category 5 in 12 hours, impacting Florida and delaying NASAs spacecraft splashdown operations.

Rapid Intensification in Hurricanes

Rapid intensification refers to an increase in the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone by at least 35 mph within 24 hours. This phenomenon is influenced by factors such as high sea surface temperatures, low vertical wind shear, and high moisture content in the atmosphere. Rapid intensification makes hurricanes more dangerous and harder to predict. It often occurs in the Atlantic hurricane basin during peak season. Not all storms undergo this process, but when they do, it can lead to sudden escalation from a tropical storm to a major hurricane, complicating evacuation and disaster response efforts.

Why in news?

Hurricane Ian exhibited rapid intensification, which increased its destructive power and complicated forecasting and emergency preparedness in affected regions.

Ratel (Honey Badger)

The Ratel is a member of the Mustelidae family, native to Africa and parts of Asia. It is nocturnal and feeds on a varied diet including small mammals, birds, insects, fruits, and honey. It has powerful, curved claws used for digging burrows and accessing prey. The Ratel is solitary and elusive, with a flexible body allowing it to escape predators by twisting. It contributes to ecological balance by controlling pests and aiding nutrient cycling. In India, it is protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, but remains rarely observed.

Why in news?

A honey badger was photographed for the first time in Uttarakhands TEFD in early 2024, marking a discovery for local biodiversity research and conservation efforts.

Reanalysis Data

Reanalysis data involves the systematic reprocessing of historical weather observations using modern numerical weather prediction models. This process generates a consistent, comprehensive dataset spanning several decades, combining observations with model outputs to fill gaps. It enables researchers to study past climate and weather events with improved accuracy. The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are prominent producers of reanalysis datasets. These datasets are crucial for climate monitoring, model validation, and improving forecast skill. They also help in understanding long-term trends and variability in the atmosphere and oceans.

Why in news?

GraphCast uses reanalysis data as its training foundation, allowing it to generate more precise weather forecasts by learning from a rich, historical weather record.

Recrystallization in Firn

Recrystallization in firn is the process where snow crystals undergo transformation under pressure and temperature changes, increasing density and reducing pore space. This process converts loose, granular snow into firn and eventually into glacial ice. It occurs over multiple years and involves the growth of larger ice grains at the expense of smaller ones. Recrystallization affects the permeability and mechanical properties of firn, influencing glacier flow and meltwater infiltration. The rate of recrystallization depends on climate factors like temperature and accumulation rate, making it a key process in glacier mass balance studies.

Why in news?

About recrystallization in firn helps scientists predict glacier behavior and boundary shifts, relevant to the recent changes in the Italy-Switzerland border due to melting glaciers.

Red Tide Phenomenon

Red tides are harmful algal blooms caused by rapid growth of certain dinoflagellates and other phytoplankton. These blooms discolor water, often red or brown, due to pigments. Some species produce potent neurotoxins or hepatotoxins that accumulate in shellfish, causing paralytic or diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in humans. Red tides can cause massive fish kills by depleting oxygen or releasing toxins. They are influenced by environmental factors like nutrient runoff, temperature, and water circulation. Red tides have been documented for centuries and affect fisheries, tourism, and coastal ecosystems worldwide.

Why in news?

Red tides linked to dinoflagellate blooms have been reported recently along the Indian coastline, raising concerns about marine toxicity and ecosystem impacts in October 2024.

Reflective Ice Surfaces (Albedo Effect)

Reflective ice surfaces refer to the Arctic sea ice’s ability to reflect sunlight, a property known as the albedo effect. Ice and snow reflect up to 80-90% of incoming solar radiation, helping to regulate global temperatures. When ice melts, darker ocean water is exposed, absorbing up to 90% of sunlight instead of reflecting it. This absorption accelerates warming in a positive feedback loop, further melting ice and increasing heat retention. The albedo effect is crucial in polar climate regulation and influences global weather patterns by affecting atmospheric circulation and heat distribution.

Why in news?

The loss of reflective ice surfaces accelerates Arctic warming, contributing to the rapid decline in sea ice and influencing global climate dynamics.

Regenerative Agriculture

Regenerative agriculture is a farming approach focused on restoring soil health, increasing biodiversity, and enhancing ecosystem services. Techniques include cover cropping, reduced tillage, crop rotation, and agroforestry. It improves green water retention by enhancing soil organic matter and structure, increasing infiltration and moisture-holding capacity. Regenerative practices also boost carbon sequestration and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The movement aims to convert 50% of global cropland to regenerative methods by 2050 to combat land degradation and climate change. It differs from conventional agriculture by prioritizing ecological balance and long-term sustainability over short-term yields.

Why in news?

Global environmental targets in 2024 emphasize scaling regenerative agriculture to restore green water flows and support climate and food security goals.

Regional Environmental Center (REC)

The Regional Environmental Center (REC) was founded in 1995 to promote sustainable development and environmental cooperation primarily in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. REC supports capacity building, environmental education, and policy dialogue among governments, NGOs, and communities. It operates as a regional hub facilitating information exchange and joint projects addressing pollution, biodiversity loss, and climate change. REC has offices in multiple countries and collaborates closely with international organizations to implement EU environmental directives in non-EU countries. Its work often focuses on transboundary water management and waste reduction initiatives in post-Soviet states.

Why in news?

REC is part of the ENVSEC partnership that issued a report on environmental security in the South Caucasus, denoting regional cooperation needs before COP29 in Baku.

Renewable Energy Capacity in Africa

Africas renewable energy capacity was approximately 56 GW in 2022, including hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal sources. Hydropower accounts for the largest share, but solar and wind are rapidly expanding. The continent has vast untapped renewable potential due to abundant sunlight, wind corridors, and geothermal sites in the Rift Valley. Challenges include financing, infrastructure, and policy frameworks. The target set by APRA aims to increase capacity to 300 GW by 2030, representing more than a fivefold increase to meet rising energy demand and climate goals.

Why in news?

The 2024 APRA forum discussed strategies to increase Africas renewable energy capacity from 56 GW to 300 GW by 2030, emphasizing investment and policy frameworks.

Renewable Energy Skills Demand

The demand for renewable energy skills includes expertise in solar panel installation, wind turbine maintenance, and energy storage technologies. These skills are critical as countries invest in decarbonizing their power grids. Training programs often combine technical knowledge with environmental science and policy understanding. The sector requires both blue-collar workers and engineers, creating diverse job opportunities. Growth in renewable energy jobs outpaces many traditional energy sectors, driven by government incentives and falling technology costs. This demand fuels the green premium and marks the importance of workforce development to meet climate goals.

Why in news?

The green premiums existence is linked to increased demand for renewable energy skills, which is a focus of economic and labor market analyses in sustainable development discussions.

Rome Declaration on Water Scarcity in Agriculture

The Rome Declaration on Water Scarcity in Agriculture was adopted in October 2024 to reinforce global commitments to manage water scarcity in agriculture. It emphasizes integrated water management, sustainable irrigation practices, and the promotion of innovative technologies. The declaration encourages increased investment in water-efficient infrastructure and cooperation among countries. It also calls for improved data collection and sharing to optimize water use. The declaration was developed through collaborative dialogue among governments, UN bodies, and stakeholders at an international conference held in Rome.

Why in news?

The declaration was adopted on October 17, 2024, as a key outcome to strengthen global action on agricultural water scarcity amid worsening climate impacts.

Routine Childhood Immunization Threshold for Herd Immunity

Herd immunity for polio requires at least 95% vaccination coverage to prevent virus transmission within a population. This threshold ensures that enough individuals are immune, indirectly protecting those who are unvaccinated or immunocompromised. The 95% target is based on polios high contagiousness and has been established by global health organizations like WHO. Coverage below this level increases the risk of outbreaks, especially in areas with poor sanitation or healthcare access. Immunization rates dropping from 75% to 70% reduce community protection, facilitating virus spread and resurgence in vulnerable populations.

Why in news?

Immunization rates in conflict-affected countries fell below the 95% threshold, contributing to new polio outbreaks in 2023.

Rusty Spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus)

The Rusty Spotted Cat is one of the smallest wild cat species, native to India and Sri Lanka. It weighs between 0.9 to 1.6 kg and measures about 35-48 cm in body length. It has a distinctive rusty-colored coat with dark spots and stripes. This nocturnal and elusive feline primarily preys on small mammals, birds, and insects. It inhabits dense forests and scrublands, often near water sources. Listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, it is classified as Near Threatened due to habitat loss and fragmentation.

Why in news?

The Rusty Spotted Cat is one of the protected species found in Hasdeo Arand forest, which faces ecological threats from coal mining activities.

RVT-2 Tigress

RVT-2 refers to an individual tigress monitored within the Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve. Tigers in this reserve are part of ongoing conservation and research efforts. RVT-2s death in 2024 triggered forensic investigations involving hair and bone sample analysis to determine the cause of death. Tigers in this region are tagged and tracked using radio collars or camera traps for population and health monitoring. The forensic study of RVT-2 marks challenges in wildlife crime investigations, especially in remote, natural habitats where environmental factors affect evidence preservation.

Why in news?

RVT-2s death prompted forensic investigations in October 2024, with samples collected from Bandrapole Nallah to understand the cause of death within the tiger reserve.

Sabu Varghese (Kunjumon)

Sabu Varghese, also known as Kunjumon, is a former poacher turned wildlife conservationist in Kerala. His transformation from a forest criminal to a key member of the Cheetah Squad is notable for its impact on anti-poaching efforts. Kunjumon uses his knowledge of poaching networks and forest terrain to provide critical intelligence to forest authorities. He symbolizes successful rehabilitation of offenders through community programs. His story is often cited as a model for involving reformed poachers in conservation work, helping reduce forest crimes in the Idukki and Theni districts.

Why in news?

Kunjumon was honored at a ceremony recognizing his efforts in forest protection and his role within the Cheetah Squad.

Sacred Snow Leopard Sites in Kyrgyzstan

Sacred snow leopard sites in Kyrgyzstan are natural areas considered spiritually by indigenous communities. These sites are often located in mountainous regions inhabited by the endangered snow leopard. Indigenous people perform rituals and maintain taboos to protect these habitats, linking cultural beliefs with ecological conservation. The designation of these sites as sacred helps preserve biodiversity by restricting harmful human activities. Such sites are part of broader efforts to integrate indigenous knowledge into wildlife protection strategies, encouraging coexistence between humans and endangered species.

Why in news?

Sacred snow leopard sites are central to recent conservation efforts involving Indigenous Cultural Practitioners in Kyrgyzstan.

Saiga Antelope

The saiga antelope is a critically endangered species native to the Eurasian steppes, especially Central Asia. It has a distinctive bulbous nose that filters dust and regulates temperature. Saigas experienced a catastrophic population decline in the 2010s due to disease outbreaks and poaching. Conservation efforts include anti-poaching patrols, habitat protection, and community engagement. Saigas play important role in steppe ecosystems by grazing and maintaining vegetation balance. Their migration patterns are among the longest of any terrestrial mammal in the region.

Why in news?

The ACBK targets the saiga antelope in its conservation projects, contributing to the species’ recovery in Kazakhstan.

Sal (Shorea robusta)

Sal (Shorea robusta) is a dominant deciduous tree species native to the Indian subcontinent, particularly in central and eastern India. It can grow up to 35-40 meters tall and is prized for its strong, durable timber used in construction, furniture, and railway sleepers. Sal forests have a unique ecology, supporting diverse flora and fauna. The tree produces a resin called sal dammar, used in varnishes and incense. Sal leaves are traditionally used in rural India as disposable plates. The species plays role in forest-based livelihoods and is culturally important in tribal communities.

Why in news?

Sal trees form a major part of the Hasdeo Arand forest ecosystem, which is currently threatened by coal mining activities, sparking environmental protests.

Salar de Uyuni

The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is the worlds largest salt flat, spanning over 10,000 square kilometers. It contains an estimated 7 million tons of lithium, making it the largest single deposit globally. Formed from prehistoric lakes evaporated over 40,000 years ago, it is also a major source of salt and potassium. The flats surface is extremely flat, varying by less than 1 meter across its expanse, making it useful for calibrating satellites. It is also a unique ecosystem with endemic species like the pink flamingo. The area is a major tourist attraction due to its mirror-like reflections during rainy seasons.

Why in news?

Salar de Uyuni is central to Bolivias lithium mining ambitions, attracting over $2.8 billion in investments from Russia and China in 2023 to develop extraction and processing.

Salaya Thermal Power Plant

The Salaya Thermal Power Plant, operated by Essar Power, is an ICB plant located in Gujarat. It primarily uses imported coal blended with domestic coal, with a total installed capacity of approximately 1,200 MW. The plants coastal location facilitates coal imports through nearby ports, reducing transportation time and costs. Salaya employs subcritical technology and has faced operational challenges linked to fuel supply variability and environmental regulations. It contributes to regional power stability and grid support during peak demand periods.

Why in news?

Salaya Thermal Power Plant is included in the governments directive for ICB plants to operate at full capacity to ensure uninterrupted power supply amid domestic coal shortages.

Salt Pan Land in Mumbai

Salt pans in Mumbai are low-lying coastal lands historically used for salt extraction through evaporation. These areas are ecologically sensitive, supporting migratory birds and acting as natural buffers against flooding. Mumbais salt pans cover thousands of acres but have largely been underutilized or degraded over decades. The ecological significance includes supporting mangrove ecosystems and maintaining groundwater recharge. Urban development on salt pans requires strict environmental clearances due to their vulnerability. Salt pans also hold socio-economic importance for local communities historically engaged in salt farming, a practice declining with urbanization pressures.

Why in news?

Salt pan lands totaling 1,781 acres have been approved for development under DCPR-2034, raising debates about balancing ecological concerns with urban expansion in Mumbai.

Sambhar Salt Lake

Sambhar Salt Lake, located in Rajasthan, is the countrys largest inland saltwater lake and a Ramsar wetland site. It covers about 230 square kilometers and is rich in saline water, supporting salt extraction and unique biodiversity including migratory birds. The lakes ecosystem is fragile, with seasonal water level variations and high salinity. It is a critical habitat for flamingos and other waterfowl. The lakes alkaline, saline environment can promote growth of certain bacteria and toxins under stagnant conditions. It has experienced ecological stress from human activity and climate variability.

Why in news?

In October 2024, Sambhar Salt Lake is the site of a suspected avian botulism outbreak causing mass bird deaths, raising ecological and conservation concerns.

Sample Block Counts

Sample block counts involve dividing large forest areas into smaller, manageable blocks for detailed wildlife surveys. Each block is surveyed intensively to estimate animal densities, which are then extrapolated to the entire landscape. This method improves accuracy by focusing on representative habitat patches rather than entire regions, reducing time and resource requirements. It was often used alongside the indirect dung count method before genetic sampling became common. Sample block counts help balance survey effort with spatial coverage and are particularly useful in heterogeneous or difficult terrains.

Why in news?

Sample block counts were combined with the indirect dung count method in the 2022-23 elephant census to improve population estimates.

Sarco Pod

The Sarco Pod is a 3D-printed euthanasia device developed by Exit International. It allows users to voluntarily end their lives by inducing hypoxia through nitrogen gas inside a sealed capsule. The pod is designed for easy transport and use in jurisdictions where assisted dying is legal. It features a touchscreen interface that requires a mental fitness test before activation. The Sarco Pod was revealed in 2017 and has been subject to legal scrutiny and ethical debate. Its design aims to provide a peaceful, painless death while preserving user autonomy and dignity.

Why in news?

The Sarco Pod gained attention following its use in a recent assisted death in Switzerland, raising ethical and legal questions about euthanasia devices.

Satabhaya Gram Panchayat

Satabhaya is a Gram Panchayat located in the Kendrapara district of Odisha, known for its vulnerability to coastal erosion and frequent cyclones. The area has experienced land loss due to rising sea levels and storm surges, leading to repeated displacement of local communities. Satabhayas Gram Panchayat is involved in disaster preparedness, including early warning dissemination and evacuation planning. The region is part of ongoing coastal protection projects, including mangrove restoration efforts aimed at reducing erosion. Its geographic challenges make it a focus area for climate resilience initiatives in Odisha.

Why in news?

Satabhaya Gram Panchayat is on high alert and actively managing evacuation and relief operations in response to Cyclone Danas approach in October 2024.

Satabhaya Villages

Satabhaya is a cluster of coastal villages in Kendrapara district, Odisha, severely affected by coastal erosion and rising sea levels. These villages have faced repeated flooding and land loss due to cyclones and tidal surges, forcing inhabitants to relocate. The erosion has been ongoing for decades, making Satabhaya one of the first documented cases of climate-induced displacement in India. The villagers traditional livelihoods, primarily fishing and agriculture, have been disrupted. Government efforts to protect Satabhaya have included embankments and resettlement schemes, though challenges remain in balancing ecological and human needs.

Why in news?

Satabhaya villages are the original climate refugee source population for the Baghpatia Thaithan Colony resettlement project, which is currently facing implementation issues.

Satellite Fire Data

Satellite fire data consists of remotely sensed information capturing active fires, burnt areas, fire radiative power, and smoke plumes globally. Sensors like MODIS, VIIRS, and Sentinel provide near-real-time fire detection and historical fire records. This data helps quantify fire extent, intensity, and frequency across diverse ecosystems. Satellite fire data is essential for calibrating and validating fire-vegetation models, improving wildfire prediction accuracy. It also supports emergency response, air quality monitoring, and climate impact studies. Limitations include cloud cover interference and difficulty detecting small or low-intensity fires under dense canopy.

Why in news?

Satellite fire data underpins the global fire-vegetation models used to analyze wildfire patterns and influences worldwide from 2003 to 2019.

Satellite Transmitters for Sea Turtles

Satellite transmitters used on sea turtles are small, lightweight devices designed to track migration and behavior over long distances. These transmitters send location and environmental data to satellites, enabling researchers to monitor turtles’ oceanic routes in real time. They are typically attached to the turtles carapace using strong adhesives like epoxy resin to endure saltwater immersion and physical abrasion. The devices operate on limited battery life, often lasting several months to years, depending on transmission frequency. Data collected assists in conservation efforts by identifying critical habitats and migration corridors.

Why in news?

Sea turtle tracking using satellite transmitters was discussed by Christine Figgener, who described the attachment process and challenges in her recent memoir.

Scurvy

Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid), essential for collagen synthesis and tissue repair. Symptoms include fatigue, swollen gums, joint pain, and anemia. Historically common among sailors during long sea voyages, scurvy was largely eradicated in developed countries by the 20th century due to dietary improvements. However, recent increases in cases have been linked to poor nutrition, malabsorption disorders, and socioeconomic factors. Treatment involves vitamin C supplementation, which rapidly reverses symptoms. Scurvys re-emergence in modern healthcare marks ongoing challenges in nutrition and public health surveillance.

Why in news?

Hospital admissions for scurvy increased by 27% in England from 2009 to 2014, as reported by HSCIC, drawing renewed attention to this preventable nutritional deficiency.

Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies

Sea Surface Temperature (SST) anomalies refer to deviations from the average temperature of the ocean’s surface. These anomalies influence weather patterns, marine ecosystems, and climate phenomena like El Niño and La Niña. SST anomalies can trigger coral bleaching, affect fish migration, and alter monsoon intensity. INCOIS monitors SST anomalies using satellite remote sensing and in-situ measurements to provide timely data for climate research and fisheries management. Persistent SST anomalies in the Indian Ocean are linked to extreme weather events such as cyclones and droughts in South Asia.

Why in news?

INCOIS’s monitoring of SST anomalies in October 2024 contributed to forecasting marine conditions and potential climate impacts along the Indian coast.

Sea-Ice Fluctuations

Sea-ice fluctuations refer to seasonal and annual changes in the extent and thickness of ocean ice surrounding polar regions. In the Antarctic Peninsula, these fluctuations are pronounced, with ice cover expanding in winter and retreating in summer. Variability in sea-ice affects local ecosystems by altering habitat availability for species like krill and penguins. It also influences ocean salinity and temperature, impacting global ocean currents. Recent declines in sea-ice extent have been linked to regional warming, accelerating glacial melt and contributing to rising sea levels worldwide.

Why in news?

Declining sea-ice around the Antarctic Peninsula has been connected to increased vegetation growth and ecosystem shifts due to warming trends.

Seagrass Beds

Seagrass beds are underwater flowering plants found in shallow coastal waters, forming dense underwater meadows. They provide critical habitats for juvenile fish, sea turtles, and dugongs. Seagrasses act as carbon sinks, storing up to ten times more carbon per area than terrestrial forests. They stabilize sediments, reduce coastal erosion, and improve water quality by filtering pollutants. Globally, seagrass beds are declining at an estimated rate of 1.5% per year due to coastal development, pollution, and climate change. In the Coral Triangle, 22% of seagrass habitats face threats from oil and gas activities.

Why in news?

The COP16 report emphasized the vulnerability of seagrass beds in the Coral Triangle to fossil fuel infrastructure development, denoting risks to their ecological functions and dependent species.

Seagrasses

Seagrasses are flowering plants that form underwater meadows in shallow coastal waters worldwide. They capture carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and store it in their biomass and sediments, making them blue carbon sinks. Seagrass meadows cover an estimated 300,000 to 600,000 square kilometers globally. They support marine biodiversity by providing habitat and nursery grounds for fish and invertebrates. Seagrasses also improve water quality by stabilizing sediments and filtering pollutants. Seagrass ecosystems are vulnerable to pollution, coastal development, and climate change-induced ocean warming and acidification.

Why in news?

Seagrasses are brought into light in the UNFCCC October 2024 report as vital yet underutilized components of blue carbon strategies in global climate mitigation efforts.

Seasonal Waterholes in Hwange National Park

Seasonal waterholes in Hwange National Park are natural depressions that fill with rainwater during wet seasons, providing critical water sources for wildlife during dry periods. These waterholes support diverse species, including elephants, lions, and over 400 bird species, by sustaining them in the arid savannah ecosystem. Water availability here influences animal migration and breeding patterns. Some waterholes have been artificially maintained to mitigate drought effects. Their ecological role is vital in maintaining biodiversity and supporting predator-prey dynamics within the park’s ecosystem.

Why in news?

Seasonal waterholes are crucial for wildlife survival during the current severe drought affecting Hwange National Park’s ecosystem and elephant populations.

Seawater Pumping for Ice Thickening

Seawater pumping involves drilling holes beneath thin Arctic sea ice and pumping seawater onto the ice surface, where it freezes during winter, increasing ice thickness. This technique leverages the natural freezing process to extend ice cover longevity into warmer months. It was first tested in the Canadian Arctic on a small scale. The method can increase ice thickness by several centimeters per season but poses risks such as disrupting snow insulation and altering local ecosystems. It is considered a temporary intervention, not a permanent climate solution.

Why in news?

Scientists recently trialed seawater pumping in the Canadian Arctic to thicken sea ice, aiming to reduce summer ice loss accelerated by climate change.

Section 15C of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA)

Section 15C of the EPA defines the specific roles and powers of adjudicating officers appointed under Section 23. These officers can summon individuals suspected of environmental violations, demand production of records and documents, and conduct inquiries to ascertain facts. They must provide a fair hearing before imposing any penalties. The section ensures procedural fairness and transparency in environmental enforcement. The penalties imposed consider the scale of environmental harm, including population impact and violation duration. This section complements other environmental laws but operates independently from the National Green Tribunal Acts penalty mechanisms.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court pointed out the lack of operational adjudicating officers under Section 15C, affecting enforcement against environmental offenses like stubble burning.

Section 23 of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA)

Section 23 of the EPA authorizes the Union government to appoint adjudicating officers at both central and state levels. These officers are empowered to conduct inquiries and impose penalties on environmental violations. Their role includes summoning violators, demanding relevant records, and ensuring a fair hearing before penalties are imposed. The penalties are determined based on factors such as the affected population, the duration of the violation, and the environmental damage caused. This provision is distinct from the National Green Tribunal Act, with adjudicating officers functioning independently in penalty decisions. Notification of rules to appoint these officers remains pending as of October 2024.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court brought into light the absence of notified adjudicating officers under the EPA, which hampers enforcement actions against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana.

Seismic Monitoring by India Meteorological Department

The India Meteorological Department operates a nationwide seismic network to monitor earthquake activity. It maintains over 100 seismic stations equipped with broadband seismographs. The department analyzes seismic data to detect tremors and issue early warnings. IMD collaborates with the National Centre for Seismology and international agencies to improve earthquake risk assessment. It also conducts research on seismic hazard zonation and earthquake preparedness. IMDs seismic monitoring covers both natural and induced seismicity, including mining-related tremors. Data from IMD is used by disaster management authorities for planning and response.

Why in news?

IMDs expanded role in seismic monitoring complements its meteorological services, contributing to integrated disaster risk reduction efforts brought into light in October 2024 policy discussions.

Sequential and Rotational Naming Convention

Cyclone names in the North Indian Ocean are assigned in a fixed sequential and rotational order from the pre-approved list of 169 names. The naming starts with Bangladesh and proceeds through the list country by country, ensuring fairness and predictability. This system prevents bias and confusion in naming storms. Names are not reused until the entire list is exhausted, which may take many years. This method supports clear communication among meteorological agencies and the public, improving disaster preparedness and response.

Why in news?

The naming of Cyclone Dana illustrates the application of the sequential and rotational system, denoting the process by which cyclone names are assigned in the North Indian Ocean region.

Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) in Urban Water Management

Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) process wastewater to remove contaminants before releasing treated water back into the environment or for reuse. The new nine STPs in Bengaluru will have a combined capacity of 500 MLD, crucial for reducing pollution and supporting water recycling. STPs typically use primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment stages, including sedimentation, biological treatment, and disinfection. Advanced STPs may incorporate membrane filtration and nutrient removal. Efficient STPs help cities manage water scarcity by supplementing freshwater supplies and minimizing environmental degradation caused by untreated sewage discharge.

Why in news?

The Cauvery Stage VI project includes ₹2,000 crore for nine new STPs to enhance Bengalurus wastewater treatment and water reuse capacity.

Shared Governance in Conservation

Shared governance refers to the collaborative management of protected and conserved areas between Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities and government or other entities. It combines traditional ecological knowledge with formal conservation practices. This governance model covers approximately 11.84% of global protected areas, supporting biodiversity while respecting cultural values and rights. Shared governance often involves co-management agreements, joint decision-making, and benefit-sharing mechanisms. It enhances conservation effectiveness and social equity by incorporating diverse stakeholder perspectives. Challenges include legal recognition, capacity building, and balancing power dynamics. Shared governance is increasingly promoted under international frameworks like the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

Why in news?

The 2024 Protected Planet Report quantified shared governances extent globally and telld its importance in sustainable biodiversity conservation efforts.

Shifting Rainfall Patterns

Shifting rainfall patterns refer to changes in the timing, intensity, and distribution of precipitation over time. These shifts affect water availability, soil moisture, and ecosystem health. They can cause prolonged dry spells or intense rainfall events, disrupting agriculture and water management. Shifts are influenced by climate change, altering monsoon dynamics and regional weather systems. In the Indian subcontinent, shifting rainfall patterns have led to unpredictable monsoons, affecting crop cycles and increasing flood and drought risks. These changes complicate traditional farming calendars and water resource planning, impacting millions dependent on rain-fed agriculture.

Why in news?

Shifting rainfall patterns are cited as chronic stressors exacerbating climate vulnerability in India, complicating adaptation strategies for 2024 and beyond.

Silted Rivers

Silted rivers are watercourses where sediment accumulation reduces the rivers depth and flow capacity. This sediment buildup results from soil erosion upstream and slows water movement, increasing flood risk. In Bihar, siltation contributes to river course changes, leading to the formation of chaurs and worsening waterlogging. Silted rivers require regular dredging to maintain navigability and flow. Excessive silt can alter ecosystems, reduce fish populations, and increase sediment deposition downstream. The process is accelerated by deforestation, agricultural runoff, and inadequate soil conservation practices.

Why in news?

Silted rivers in Bihar have caused river course shifts in 2024, leading to increased sediment deposition and formation of chaurs, aggravating flood and waterlogging problems.

Silver Iodide

Silver iodide is a chemical compound with the formula AgI. It has a crystalline structure similar to ice, making it effective as a nucleating agent in cloud seeding. When dispersed into clouds, silver iodide particles serve as ice nuclei, encouraging supercooled water droplets to freeze and form precipitation. It was first used for cloud seeding experiments in the late 1940s. Silver iodide is insoluble in water, which allows it to remain in clouds long enough to trigger ice crystal formation. Its environmental impact is considered minimal due to the low quantities used in weather modification.

Why in news?

Silver iodide is referenced as a common substance used in cloud seeding, which was discussed to explain the limits of human influence on weather events.

Similipal Tiger Reserve

Similipal Tiger Reserve, located in Odisha, covers approximately 2,750 square kilometers of forest and is part of the Similipal-Kuldiha-Hadgarh Elephant Reserve. It is home to population of Bengal tigers, including rare pseudo-melanistic individuals. The reserve features diverse ecosystems with tropical moist deciduous forests and supports various endangered species. It has been designated a biosphere reserve and is crucial for tiger conservation in eastern India. Similipal faces challenges such as human-wildlife conflict, poaching, and habitat fragmentation, requiring active management and translocation efforts.

Why in news?

Similipal Tiger Reserve houses 27 of Odishas 30 tigers as per AOTE-2023-24, prompting conservation actions including female tiger translocation to enhance genetic diversity.

Slow Movement of Hurricanes

Slow-moving hurricanes are tropical cyclones that progress at speeds less than 5 mph. This slow pace allows prolonged exposure to strong winds and heavy rainfall over affected areas, increasing flooding and wind damage. Slow movement often results from weak steering currents in the atmosphere. These storms can stall near coastlines, causing devastating storm surges and extended periods of rain. Examples include Hurricane Harvey in 2017 and Hurricane Ian in 2022. Slow-moving hurricanes pose challenges to emergency management due to the extended duration of hazardous conditions and increased potential for catastrophic flooding.

Why in news?

Hurricane Ians slow movement increased its destructive potential by prolonging heavy rainfall and wind exposure in affected regions.

Snow Cover Disruption in Arctic Ice Engineering

Snow cover on Arctic sea ice acts as an insulating layer, reducing heat loss from the ocean to the atmosphere and slowing ice growth. Engineering methods like seawater pumping can disrupt snow accumulation by flooding the surface or altering ice texture. Changes in snow cover affect ice albedo (reflectivity), potentially increasing heat absorption and accelerating melting. Snow disruption also impacts Arctic wildlife that rely on snow for camouflage and denning. The balance between ice thickening and snow cover preservation is critical for ecosystem stability.

Why in news?

Concerns have been raised about potential snow cover disruption caused by seawater pumping trials in the Canadian Arctic, which could affect ice growth and local ecosystems.

Social Protection Systems in Climate Adaptation

Social protection systems encompass policies like unemployment benefits, cash transfers, and public health programs designed to reduce poverty and vulnerability. In climate adaptation, these systems provide income security and access to resources during environmental crises, helping populations recover from disasters. Effective social protection reduces inequality exacerbated by climate change and supports marginalized groups in adapting to new climate policies. In the Asia-Pacific, where many countries are highly vulnerable to climate risks, strengthening these systems is crucial for resilience and sustainable development. Social protection also facilitates smoother transitions to green economies by cushioning economic shocks.

Why in news?

The ILO report stresses the critical role of social protection systems in helping Asia-Pacific countries adapt to climate change and reduce its socio-economic impacts.

Songdo International Business District

Songdo International Business District is a planned smart city built on reclaimed land along the Yellow Sea in Incheon, South Korea. Construction began in 2003, aiming to create a sustainable, high-tech urban environment. It incorporates advanced green technologies such as pneumatic waste collection, extensive bike paths, and energy-efficient buildings. Songdo hosts international organizations including the Green Climate Fund headquarters. The city is designed to be carbon-neutral with a focus on walkability and smart infrastructure. It is one of the worlds first smart cities built from scratch, serving as a model for urban sustainability.

Why in news?

Songdo is mentioned as the headquarters location of the Green Climate Fund, denoting its role in global climate finance.

South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa Vulnerability

South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are regions highly vulnerable to climate shocks due to large populations dependent on agriculture, widespread poverty, and limited infrastructure. These areas experience frequent floods, droughts, and cyclones, which severely impact food security and livelihoods. Many communities lack access to early warning systems and social safety nets, increasing their risk. Migration and displacement caused by climate shocks are common. International aid and adaptive strategies are critical for resilience. Population growth and urbanization in these regions further complicate climate adaptation efforts.

Why in news?

The World Bank report identifies South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa as hotspots where billions face severe risks from increasing climate shocks.

South Caucasus Climate-Security Nexus

The South Caucasus climate-security nexus refers to the complex interplay between environmental changes and regional stability in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Climate change impacts such as droughts, water scarcity, and land degradation exacerbate existing ethnic and territorial conflicts. The regions shared rivers and ecosystems create potential flashpoints for transboundary disputes. International efforts focus on climate adaptation and conflict-sensitive environmental management to reduce tensions. The nexus is critical due to the South Caucasuss geopolitical sensitivity, energy transit routes, and fragile political relations, making environmental cooperation a key component of peacebuilding strategies.

Why in news?

ENVSECs recent report on the South Caucasus marks vulnerabilities in the climate-security nexus, urging enhanced transboundary environmental cooperation ahead of COP29 in Baku.

Southern Africa Wildlife Culling for Food Security

During severe droughts, some southern African countries resort to wildlife culling as a strategy to provide food and reduce pressure on scarce resources. This practice involves selectively reducing populations of species such as impalas, kudus, and warthogs. It aims to balance ecosystem health and human needs during crises. Culling can help prevent starvation and disease outbreaks among wildlife. It is controversial due to conservation concerns but sometimes deemed necessary by governments. The process is regulated by local authorities and often involves community participation to ensure sustainable practices.

Why in news?

The 2023-2024 El Niño-induced drought in southern Africa has forced countries like Zimbabwe and Namibia to implement wildlife culling to address food shortages and ecosystem strain.

Spurious and Fake Medicines

Spurious and fake medicines refer to drugs that are deliberately and fraudulently mislabeled with respect to identity or source. They may contain incorrect or no active ingredients, harmful substances, or substandard quantities. These medicines pose serious health risks and undermine public trust. Detection requires advanced analytical techniques and regulatory vigilance. Indias regulatory bodies work to identify and remove such medicines from the market. The Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, and subsequent amendments provide legal frameworks to combat these. Efforts include stricter penalties, awareness campaigns, and technology-enabled tracking systems.

Why in news?

The Parliamentary Committee is focusing on regulatory performance in preventing spurious and fake medicines amidst India’s API self-sufficiency drive.

Stage I GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)

Stage I GRAP is a regulatory framework implemented in Delhi-NCR to combat severe air pollution episodes. It mandates specific actions when air quality deteriorates to hazardous levels, including restrictions on brick kiln operations, construction activities, and vehicular movement. Under Stage I, brick kilns must limit or halt operations and switch to cleaner fuels or technologies. GRAP stages are triggered by monitored air quality indices and meteorological conditions. The plan aims to reduce emissions of particulate matter and toxic gases rapidly during winter months, when pollution peaks due to climatic and anthropogenic factors.

Why in news?

Brick kilns are regulated under Stage I GRAP, which enforces emission controls and operational restrictions to mitigate their pollution impact in the Delhi-NCR region.

Stage-2 GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)

The Stage-2 GRAP is part of a multi-tiered air pollution control strategy implemented in Delhi and neighboring regions. It activates when air quality reaches a hazardous level, triggering measures like banning construction, deploying anti-smog vehicles, restricting heavy vehicles, and shutting down schools. The plan aims to reduce particulate matter and curb pollution spikes during winter. It was developed by the Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority (EPCA) and is based on real-time air quality data. The graded approach allows for escalating responses depending on pollution severity.

Why in news?

Stage-2 GRAP was activated in Delhi due to deteriorating air quality, prompting deployment of anti-smog vehicles and other pollution control measures.

Starch-Rich Diets in Indigenous Peruvian Populations

Indigenous populations in Peru, particularly those in Andean highlands, consume diets rich in native tubers like potatoes and oca. These starch-heavy diets correlate with higher AMY1 gene copy numbers, reflecting genetic adaptation to their environment. The variation aids in efficient starch digestion and glucose release. Traditional agricultural practices in the Andes date back over 7,000 years. Genetic studies show population-specific AMY1 copy number distribution, linked to subsistence strategies. These adaptations impact metabolic health and may influence susceptibility to conditions like diabetes.

Why in news?

Recent research on AMY1 gene variation marks how Peruvian highland populations starch-rich diets correlate with increased gene copies, illustrating ongoing human genetic adaptation to diet.

State of the Climate Report 2024

The State of the Climate Report is an annual publication by the World Meteorological Organization that summarizes global climate trends and extreme weather events. The 2024 edition marks accelerated forest dieback as a critical climate tipping point. It presents updated data on temperature rise, greenhouse gas concentrations, and ecosystem impacts. The report integrates satellite observations and ground data to assess environmental changes. It serves as a key reference for policymakers and scientists to track climate change progression and inform mitigation strategies. The 2024 report emphasizes urgent risks to forest ecosystems and global biodiversity.

Why in news?

The 2024 report draws attention to forest diebacks role in ecosystem destabilization and climate tipping points, underlining the urgency of global climate action.

Storm Surge

Storm surge is an abnormal rise in sea level caused by a storms winds pushing water onshore. It can exceed normal tide levels by several feet, leading to coastal flooding. Surge height depends on storm intensity, speed, size, angle of approach, and coastal topography. It is the primary cause of hurricane-related deaths and property damage. Surge can inundate low-lying areas, erode beaches, and damage infrastructure. The effect is worsened when combined with high tides. Storm surge differs from tsunami waves, which are caused by seismic activity rather than atmospheric conditions.

Why in news?

Hurricane Miltons storm surge flooded Floridas barrier islands, emphasizing the destructive potential of surge on coastal environments.

Storm Trami

Storm Trami is a tropical cyclone that affects the western Pacific and Southeast Asia, often bringing heavy rainfall, strong winds, and flooding. It forms over warm ocean waters and can intensify rapidly, causing damage to infrastructure and disrupting transport. Trami has been named multiple times as it reoccurs in different years, following the World Meteorological Organizations tropical cyclone naming conventions. The storm’s impact varies by region but often leads to flight cancellations, power outages, and emergency evacuations. It is closely monitored by meteorological agencies for early warnings and disaster preparedness.

Why in news?

Storm Trami caused severe weather conditions leading to the temporary closure of four airports in central Vietnam, disrupting air travel and necessitating emergency response coordination.

Stubble Burning in Punjab and Haryana

Stubble burning is the practice of setting fire to crop residue after harvest, common in Punjab and Haryana. It contributes to seasonal air pollution in Delhi-NCR, especially in winter. The smoke contains particulate matter and greenhouse gases, worsening air quality and health hazards. Despite bans and penalties, stubble burning persists due to farmers limited access to affordable residue management alternatives. Efforts to reduce it include subsidies for machinery, awareness campaigns, and deployment of enforcement units like Flying Squads. The practice is a major transboundary pollution source affecting multiple states.

Why in news?

The Supreme Courts recent questioning of CAQMs handling of air quality issues brought into light the ongoing challenge of stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana.

Sudans Vaccination Coverage Decline Amid War

Sudans childhood vaccination coverage dropped from 85% before the war to 53% nationally during the conflict, with only 30% coverage in active conflict zones. This decline is due to damaged healthcare infrastructure, displacement of populations, and interrupted vaccine supply chains. The reduced immunization coverage increases the risk of vaccine-preventable diseases, including polio. Sudans conflict, ongoing since 2023, has severely impacted public health programs, leaving millions of children vulnerable. Efforts to restore vaccination services face logistical and security challenges in war-torn areas.

Why in news?

Sudan experienced a sharp decline in vaccination rates due to ongoing conflict, leading to increased vulnerability to polio outbreaks in 2023.

Sulfamethoxazole

Sulfamethoxazole is a synthetic antibiotic belonging to the sulfonamide class, commonly used to treat bacterial infections. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). Sulfamethoxazole is often combined with trimethoprim to enhance antibacterial efficacy. It is poorly biodegradable and frequently detected as a pollutant in water bodies due to incomplete removal in wastewater treatment plants. Its environmental persistence raises concerns about antibiotic resistance development. Photocatalytic degradation using materials like CZTS nanoparticles is an emerging method to reduce sulfamethoxazole contamination in aquatic environments.

Why in news?

The novel CZTS-based photocatalyst composite synthesized by IASST scientists targets the degradation of sulfamethoxazole to mitigate antibiotic pollution.

Supply Chain Traceability in Agricultural Commodities

Supply chain traceability refers to the process of tracking the origin and movement of products through all stages of production and distribution. In agriculture, it involves documenting the farm, harvesting date, processing, and shipping details. Traceability systems use technologies like blockchain, barcodes, and satellite monitoring to ensure transparency and legality. It helps verify compliance with environmental and social standards, such as those required by the EU Deforestation Regulation. Traceability reduces risks of fraud and supports sustainable sourcing. Challenges include high costs, data accuracy, and cooperation among multiple stakeholders in global supply chains.

Why in news?

Traceability requirements are central to the EU regulation’s enforcement, compelling coffee exporters to improve supply chain transparency to meet new legal standards.

Surface Mining

Surface mining is a method of extracting minerals or coal from the earth by removing soil and rock layers above the deposit. It includes techniques like strip mining, open-pit mining, and mountaintop removal. This method is generally used when mineral deposits are located close to the surface. Surface mining allows for the extraction of large quantities of coal quickly and is less labor-intensive than underground mining. However, it often causes environmental disruption, including habitat destruction and soil erosion. Rehabilitation of mined land is a critical part of surface mining operations to restore ecosystems.

Why in news?

Surface mining is featured in the new coal gallery at the National Science Centre, denoting its techniques and environmental impact as part of coals extraction methods.

Suru Sugarcane

Suru sugarcane is a 12-month duration variety grown mainly in Maharashtra. It is planted before the monsoon season and harvested within a year, usually between December and March. Suru cane is less dependent on monsoon rains compared to adsali, making it more reliable during variable rainfall years. It serves as one of the primary planting schedules alongside adsali and pre-seasonal canes. Suru’s shorter growth cycle allows for quicker turnover and earlier crushing in the sugar production season, contributing to Maharashtra’s sugar output.

Why in news?

Suru cane is one of the three main sugarcane planting schedules mentioned in the context of Maharashtras drought-affected sugarcane production for the 2024-25 season.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture integrates practices like crop rotation, organic farming, and reduced chemical use to maintain soil health and biodiversity. It aims to produce food while minimizing environmental impact and conserving resources. Techniques include agroforestry, integrated pest management, and water-efficient irrigation. Sustainable agriculture also supports local economies and food security. It is increasingly important as climate change affects traditional farming. Workers in this sector often earn a green premium due to specialized knowledge and the sectors role in reducing carbon footprints.

Why in news?

Sustainable agriculture is one of the key sectors contributing to the green premium, as brought into light in recent IMF research on wages in environmentally sustainable jobs.

Sustainable Coffee Coalition

The Sustainable Coffee Coalition is a global alliance of coffee industry stakeholders including producers, traders, roasters, and retailers. It aims to promote sustainable practices across the coffee supply chain to reduce environmental damage and improve social conditions for farmers. The coalition works by sharing data, setting standards, and supporting projects that address issues like deforestation, climate change, and farmer livelihoods. It engages in advocacy and collaborates with governments and NGOs to implement sustainability policies. The coalition is a key contributor to the Coffee Barometer, providing expertise and data for its annual sustainability assessments.

Why in news?

The Sustainable Coffee Coalition is mentioned as a primary publisher of the 2023 Coffee Barometer, which reports on deforestation linked to coffee farming.

Sustainable Veterinary Treatment Guidelines (SVTGs)

Sustainable Veterinary Treatment Guidelines (SVTGs) are protocols combining traditional and modern veterinary practices for livestock care. SVTGs emphasize the use of locally available, eco-friendly remedies, including ethnoveterinary medicine, to ensure affordable and accessible treatment. They aim to reduce chemical drug dependency, minimize environmental impact, and preserve indigenous knowledge. SVTGs include validated herbal treatments, nutritional advice, and preventive healthcare measures. These guidelines are particularly useful in rural and tribal regions with limited veterinary infrastructure. SVTGs are developed through collaboration between veterinarians, ethnobotanists, and local communities.

Why in news?

India has introduced new SVTGs incorporating ethnoveterinary practices to promote holistic and sustainable livestock healthcare.

SVTG (Standard Veterinary Treatment Guidelines)

The Standard Veterinary Treatment Guidelines (SVTG) are an official set of protocols designed to standardize veterinary care and treatments. They aim to improve animal health management by integrating both conventional and traditional methods, including ethnoveterinary practices. SVTG promotes evidence-based and sustainable treatment options to reduce antimicrobial resistance and improve animal welfare. The guidelines are used by veterinarians, para-veterinarians, and farmers to ensure consistent and effective treatment across regions. SVTG also supports the documentation and formal validation of indigenous knowledge, helping preserve traditional veterinary practices for future generations.

Why in news?

Ethnoveterinary practices were formally included in the SVTG, marking a step toward validating traditional veterinary knowledge.

Swachh Diwali Shubh Diwali Campaign

The Swachh Diwali Shubh Diwali campaign is a government initiative launched to promote cleanliness during the Diwali festival. It focuses on reducing pollution and waste generated during celebrations by encouraging thorough cleaning before and after the festival. The campaign integrates community participation and municipal efforts, emphasizing sustainable sanitation. It uses data from Cleanliness Target Units to identify priority areas. The campaign also advocates for eco-friendly practices such as using less firecrackers and promoting waste segregation. It aims to mitigate the environmental impact of Diwali festivities while improving urban hygiene standards.

Why in news?

The campaign is active in October 2024, with intensified efforts in CTUs to ensure cleanliness and reduce pollution during Diwali celebrations.

Swallowtail Butterflies of Assam

Swallowtail butterflies belong to the family Papilionidae and include several species native to Assams forests. These butterflies are indicators of healthy ecosystems and play a role in pollination. Some species in the region exhibit unique wing patterns and colors that aid in camouflage and mate attraction. They depend on specific host plants, many of which are found in the citrus belts biodiverse habitats. Swallowtails are sensitive to environmental changes and habitat fragmentation. Conservation efforts focus on protecting their breeding grounds and host plants, which are threatened by deforestation and overharvesting of medicinal plants in Assam.

Why in news?

Swallowtail butterfly populations in the citrus belt of Assam are declining due to forest habitat degradation and overexploitation of medicinal plants, signaling broader ecological distress.

Swallowtail Butterfly Genera – Atrophaneura, Pachliopta, and Triodes

The swallowtail butterfly genera Atrophaneura, Pachliopta, and Triodes depend exclusively on Aristolochiaceae plants as larval host species. These butterflies have evolved chemical tolerance to aristolochic acids, which they sequester to deter predators. The genera are mostly found in tropical Asia, with Pachliopta species known for their striking red and black wing patterns. Their life cycles are closely tied to the availability of Aristolochiaceae plants. Habitat loss and overharvesting of these plants threaten their survival, making them indicators of ecosystem health in affected regions.

Why in news?

Declining Aristolochiaceae plants in Assams Bodoland Territorial Region are causing a drop in populations of these specialized swallowtail butterflies.

Swallowtail Butterfly Host Plants

Swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae) rely on specific medicinal host plants for larval development, many of which grow in Assams Citrus Belt. These plants include species from the genera Aristolochia and Citrus, which provide essential chemical compounds for caterpillar growth and defense. Overharvesting these plants for medicinal or agricultural use reduces butterfly populations by limiting larval food sources. Swallowtails are important pollinators and indicators of ecosystem health. Conservation efforts focus on sustainable harvesting and habitat restoration to protect these butterflies and their host plants.

Why in news?

Declining swallowtail butterfly populations in Assams Citrus Belt are linked to overexploitation of their medicinal host plants, raising ecological concerns.

SWIFT Project (Sustainable Wetlands and Inland Fisheries for Tomorrow)

The SWIFT project is a government initiative focused on the rejuvenation of wetlands and inland fisheries, particularly in Assam. It aims to restore degraded beels and other wetlands to improve fish production, water management, and biodiversity conservation. The project covers 4,000 hectares and targets the restoration of 129 beels. It integrates scientific wetland management with local community participation, promoting sustainable fishing practices and enhancing rural livelihoods. The initiative also focuses on improving aquatic biodiversity, water quality, and flood control through natural wetland ecosystem restoration.

Why in news?

The SWIFT project was recently launched in Assam to restore beels and boost wetland fisheries, addressing environmental and economic challenges faced by local communities.

SWIFT Project in Assam

The SWIFT (Sustainable Wetland and Fisheries Transformation) project is an initiative aimed at restoring wetlands and boosting fisheries in Assam. It focuses on improving water management and enhancing fish production to support local livelihoods and biodiversity. The project integrates traditional knowledge with modern techniques, promoting sustainable resource use. It is part of a broader strategy to combat environmental degradation and climate change impacts in the region. SWIFT emphasizes community involvement and capacity building to ensure long-term ecological and economic benefits.

Why in news?

ADB is funding and supporting the SWIFT project to rejuvenate Assams wetlands and fisheries, contributing to sustainable development and poverty reduction.

Symbiotic Algae (Zooxanthellae)

Symbiotic algae, primarily from the genus Symbiodinium, live within coral tissues and perform photosynthesis, providing up to 90% of the coral’s energy needs. This mutualistic relationship enables corals to build calcium carbonate skeletons efficiently. When stressed by high temperatures, corals expel these algae, causing bleaching. Different clades of symbiotic algae vary in thermal tolerance, influencing coral resilience. Some corals can acquire new, more heat-tolerant algae after bleaching, potentially aiding recovery. These algae also contribute to the vibrant colors of corals. The breakdown of this symbiosis is a key indicator of coral health and ecosystem stability.

Why in news?

The expulsion of symbiotic algae due to rising sea temperatures is the central mechanism causing the record-breaking coral bleaching event of 2023-2024.

Synthetic Deer Scents

Synthetic deer scents are man-made hunting attractants designed to replicate the chemical signals found in natural deer urine. These products use artificial pheromones and scent compounds to lure deer without the risk of transmitting diseases like Chronic Wasting Disease. Synthetic scents are considered safer alternatives, as they do not contain biological fluids that can carry infectious agents. They are often formulated to mimic specific behaviors, such as rutting or territorial marking. Synthetic lures have gained popularity among hunters aiming to reduce environmental impact and disease transmission.

Why in news?

Following CWD concerns, New York wildlife agencies recommend using synthetic deer scents instead of natural urine-based lures to protect deer populations.

Synthetic Lures in Hunting

Synthetic lures are artificial attractants used by hunters to mimic natural scents or visual cues to attract game animals. Unlike natural lures derived from animal glands or bodily fluids, synthetic lures reduce the risk of transmitting diseases such as Chronic Wasting Disease by eliminating biological contamination. They can simulate urine, gland secretions, or food scents and are designed to be species-specific. Synthetic lures have gained popularity as a safer alternative in areas where wildlife diseases are present, helping hunters attract animals without increasing disease transmission risks.

Why in news?

Hunters are advised to use synthetic lures to reduce the spread of Chronic Wasting Disease following a confirmed case in New York States DEC Region 6.

Systems-Based Approach to Drought Risk Reduction

A systems-based approach to drought risk reduction considers the complex interactions between environmental, social, economic, and institutional factors influencing drought impacts. It promotes integrated management across sectors and scales, emphasizing resilience through adaptive governance, sustainable ecosystems, financial instruments, and inclusive social policies. This approach contrasts with traditional reactive methods by focusing on prevention, preparedness, and long-term adaptation. It supports the development of multi-level governance frameworks that link international, national, and local actions to address systemic drought risks comprehensively.

Why in news?

The DR+10 Conference emphasized adopting this approach to enhance global drought resilience and establish a new international mechanism for drought risk management.

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is Maharashtras oldest and largest tiger reserve, established in 1955 as a national park and declared a tiger reserve in 1993. It covers over 1,727 square kilometers, consisting of dense forests, grasslands, and wetlands. The reserve is home to around 80 tigers, making it a key site for tiger conservation. It also hosts species like Indian leopards, sloth bears, and Indian bison. Tadoba is known for its unique Tadoba lake, which supports diverse birdlife. The reserve plays a critical role in maintaining genetic diversity by connecting with neighboring forest landscapes like the EVL.

Why in news?

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is part of the EVL corridor, central to debates on infrastructure development impacting tiger movement and habitat connectivity.

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)

TERI is an Indian research institute founded in 1974 focusing on energy, environment, and sustainable development. It played a very important role in developing GRIHA and other green initiatives. TERI operates globally, advising governments and industries on climate change, renewable energy, and resource management. It hosts the annual World Sustainable Development Summit, attracting international policymakers and experts. TERI also runs a dedicated research campus in New Delhi and has contributed to Indias national policies on energy efficiency and environmental conservation.

Why in news?

TERIs development of GRIHA is central to Indias expanding green building movement, supporting national sustainability targets and climate action plans.

The Twilight Zone (Oceanography)

The oceanic twilight zone, or mesopelagic zone, extends from approximately 200 to 1,000 meters below the surface. It receives minimal sunlight, insufficient for photosynthesis, creating a unique environment with distinct biological communities. This zone plays important role in carbon cycling, as many organisms migrate vertically, transporting carbon to deeper layers. It is challenging to study due to its depth and low light, requiring advanced technologies like Argo floats and submersibles. The twilight zone acts as a buffer in ocean heat distribution and influences global climate systems. Research here is expanding due to its sensitivity to climate change and ocean warming.

Why in news?

Recent studies employed Argo floats to gather temperature data from the twilight zone, enhancing understanding of deep-sea Marine Heat Waves and their impact on ocean circulation.

Thin Ice Layers in the Arctic Ocean

Thin ice layers in the Arctic Ocean typically measure less than 30 centimeters thick and are highly susceptible to melting during summer. These layers form during early winter or late spring when freezing or melting rates are rapid. Thin ice is more permeable to heat and sunlight, accelerating melting processes. It can be broken up by wind and currents, creating leads and polynyas (open water areas). Thin ice plays important role in Arctic ecology by affecting seal and polar bear habitats and influencing ocean-atmosphere heat exchange.

Why in news?

The seawater pumping technique specifically targets thin ice layers in the Arctic Ocean to increase their thickness and durability against summer melt.

Thottappally

Thottappally is a coastal village in Alappuzha district, Kerala, known for its unique tidal basin and the Thottappally Spillway, which regulates water flow between the Vembanad Lake and the Arabian Sea. The spillway was constructed to prevent saltwater intrusion into paddy fields and control flooding. It is a critical infrastructure for local agriculture and fisheries. Thottappally also has a traditional fishing community that relies on estuarine and marine fish species. The village faces challenges from coastal erosion and rising sea levels, making it a focus area for climate resilience projects.

Why in news?

Thottappally is one of the six villages selected for the Climate Resilient Coastal Fishermen Villages scheme to enhance climate adaptation infrastructure.

TREES Initiative

The TREES initiative stands for Transforming Rural Economies and Ecosystems with Sustainable Agroforestry. It is a program launched to promote forest gardens and agroforestry in Senegal and neighboring countries. TREES supports smallholder farmers by providing training, resources, and market access to improve land restoration and economic resilience. It focuses on combating desertification, enhancing food security, and mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration. The initiative collaborates with local governments, NGOs, and communities to scale sustainable agriculture and ecological restoration efforts across vulnerable rural landscapes.

Why in news?

TREES is actively expanding agroforestry practices in Senegal and other African countries to address land degradation and improve rural livelihoods.

Tsavo Lions

The Tsavo lions are a pair of maneless lions from Kenyas Tsavo region, infamous for killing numerous railway workers in 1898. Unlike typical lions, these males lack manes, possibly due to genetic or environmental factors. Their attacks were unusual as lions rarely prey on humans. The lions behavior has been studied for vital information about predator-prey dynamics and human-wildlife conflict. Dental analysis revealed evidence of self-grooming and allogrooming. The Tsavo lions have become cultural icons, inspiring books, films, and research on lion behavior and ecology in East Africa.

Why in news?

New dental studies on Tsavo lions reveal grooming behaviors, shedding light on their social lives beyond their infamous attacks.

Tsetse Fly

The tsetse fly belongs to the genus *Glossina* and is found only in sub-Saharan Africa. It transmits trypanosomes, parasites causing African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals). Tsetse flies have a unique reproductive cycle, giving birth to live larvae instead of laying eggs. They are attracted to movement, body odor, and carbon dioxide. Control methods include traps, insecticide-treated targets, and sterile insect techniques. The flies thrive in woodland and savannah ecosystems but avoid deserts and dense forests. Tsetse fly distribution directly impacts livestock productivity and human health in affected regions.

Why in news?

The Ethiopian institute is mapping tsetse fly distribution to support FAOs efforts in controlling the vector and reducing African animal trypanosomosis.

UN Convention on Biological Diversity COP16

The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) COP16 is the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties under the CBD framework, held in Colombia. It focuses on global biodiversity conservation strategies, sustainable use of biological resources, and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. COP16 addresses emerging environmental challenges, including climate change impacts on biodiversity, and promotes new initiatives such as recognizing fungi as a distinct kingdom. The conference gathers representatives from nearly 200 countries, NGOs, and scientific communities to negotiate and commit to international biodiversity goals.

Why in news?

COP16 is the venue where Chile and the UK proposed the official recognition of fungi as the kingdom “Funga” to enhance fungal conservation globally.

University Town Area, Balanga City

The University Town area in Balanga City serves as the initial zone for the smoke-free policy implemented in 2008. It is a designated urban district known for its concentration of educational institutions, public spaces, and transport hubs. The area’s dense population and high foot traffic made it a strategic choice for tobacco control measures. The policy’s expansion beyond University Town to a 3 km radius reflects its importance as a social and economic center in Balanga. The area is also a hub for community activities, making it a key focus for public health interventions.

Why in news?

University Town is the core zone where Balanga City’s smoke-free policy began, setting a precedent for expanded tobacco control in the city.

Upper-Air Disturbances

Upper-air disturbances are atmospheric features occurring in the mid to upper troposphere, characterized by variations in wind speed and direction. These disturbances enhance vertical motion, promoting convection and cloud formation. They often interact with low-pressure systems like cyclonic circulations, intensifying weather events such as thunderstorms and rainfall. These disturbances can travel large distances and influence weather far from their origin. They play important role in monsoon dynamics by modulating rainfall patterns and the strength of monsoon currents. Their detection relies on satellite and radar observations of upper atmospheric layers.

Why in news?

Upper-air disturbances are linked to the cyclonic circulation over North Lakshadweep, enhancing convection and causing unseasonal rainfall in western India.

Urban Heat Island Effect

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect occurs when urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activities, dense buildings, and paved surfaces. It results from heat absorption by concrete, asphalt, and other materials, combined with reduced vegetation and limited airflow. UHI increases energy demand for cooling, worsens air pollution, and poses health risks. Green infrastructure like urban forests and green roofs can mitigate UHI by providing shade and evapotranspiration cooling. The phenomenon is studied using satellite imagery and ground sensors to inform urban planning and climate adaptation strategies.

Why in news?

Green infrastructure’s role in mitigating the Urban Heat Island effect is emphasized amid efforts to enhance urban resilience during Nepals 2024 monsoon flooding crisis.

Urine Spray as a Behavioral Indicator

Urine spray is a marking behavior used by leopards to communicate territory boundaries and reproductive status. Leopards spray urine on trees and vegetation, leaving chemical signals for other individuals. This behavior helps researchers identify active territories and estimate population density indirectly. Urine spray patterns can indicate dominant males and breeding females in an area. It is a non-invasive monitoring tool used alongside camera traps and pugmarks in wildlife surveys. The chemical composition of urine spray varies with individual health and hormonal status, providing vital information about leopard social structure and ecology.

Why in news?

Odishas leopard population survey in 2024 used urine spray evidence as part of its multi-method approach to improve accuracy in population estimation.

Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus (VDPV)

Vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) occurs when the weakened strain of poliovirus used in oral polio vaccines mutates and regains neurovirulence. VDPVs can cause outbreaks in under-immunized populations. There are three types – circulating VDPV (cVDPV), immunodeficiency-associated VDPV (iVDPV), and ambiguous VDPV (aVDPV). VDPVs are genetically distinct from wild polioviruses but can still cause paralysis. Detection relies on genetic sequencing. VDPVs have complicated global polio eradication efforts, necessitating enhanced surveillance and immunization coverage. The first Indian case of VDPV was confirmed by ICMR-NIV in Meghalaya.

Why in news?

The recent confirmation of a type-1 VDPV case in Meghalaya marks ongoing challenges in polio eradication and the importance of monitoring vaccine-derived strains.

Valentina Figuera Martínez

Valentina Figuera Martínez is a representative of the Global Forest Coalition, an international alliance advocating for forest conservation and Indigenous rights. She actively participates in global climate and biodiversity negotiations, voicing concerns about market-based environmental mechanisms. Martínez focuses on the impacts of carbon and biodiversity credits, emphasizing the need to protect Indigenous Peoples’ land rights and promote sustainable, community-led conservation. Her advocacy marks the intersection of environmental policy, social justice, and Indigenous knowledge, influencing discussions at major UN forums such as the COP summits.

Why in news?

Valentina Figuera Martínez spoke out on the risks of biodiversity credits at COP16, representing the Global Forest Coalitions stance against market-based environmental solutions.

Vazhachal Forest Zone, Kerala

Vazhachal is a forested region in Kerala spanning approximately 400 square kilometers, known for its rich biodiversity and dense tropical evergreen forests. It forms part of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Vazhachals forest ecosystem supports numerous endemic species and plays a critical role in watershed management. The region is for early adoption of Community Forest Resource rights under the Forest Rights Act, making it a model for community-led forest governance in India. Local gram sabhas actively participate in conservation, resource regulation, and biodiversity protection in this zone.

Why in news?

Vazhachals CFR area is brought into light due to recent CFR rights granted to tribal communities, enabling local governance and conservation initiatives under the Forest Rights Act.

Vector Control Strategies

Vector control strategies target disease-carrying organisms to reduce pathogen transmission. For malaria, these include insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), indoor residual spraying (IRS), and environmental management such as draining stagnant water. ITNs provide a physical barrier and kill mosquitoes on contact. IRS involves spraying insecticides on indoor walls where mosquitoes rest. Environmental management disrupts mosquito breeding sites by altering habitats. Resistance to insecticides among mosquitoes is an increasing challenge, leading to research on novel chemicals and biological controls. Integrated vector management combines multiple methods for sustainable control and reduces malaria transmission effectively.

Why in news?

Egypts malaria elimination success involved extensive use of vector control strategies to interrupt the Anopheles mosquito transmission cycle.

Vega Gull (Larus vegae)

The Vega gull breeds in northeastern Siberia and winters in East Asia, including Japan and Korea. It is larger than Heuglins gull and has a more extensive dark wingtip pattern. The Vega gulls plumage includes a streaked grey head during winter, unlike the white-headed Heuglins gull. It feeds on fish, marine invertebrates, and human refuse near coastal areas. The Vega gull is less frequently observed in India but is important for studying gull migration and species differentiation in northern Eurasia.

Why in news?

Vega gull is mentioned due to its similarity and frequent confusion with Heuglins gull, aiding in correct identification of recent sightings at Indian coastal wetlands.

Vegetable Dyes in Himalayan Textiles

Vegetable dyes used in Himalayan textiles are derived from natural sources like indigo, pomegranate, walnut husks, and madder roots. These dyes produce rich, lasting colors without synthetic chemicals. The dyeing process involves soaking wool in dye baths prepared using traditional recipes passed down over centuries. Vegetable dyes are environmentally friendly and contribute to the unique aesthetic of Kullu handloom products. The use of these dyes helps maintain biodiversity by encouraging the cultivation of dye plants. Preservation of vegetable dyeing techniques is crucial for sustaining the authenticity of Himalayan woven textiles.

Why in news?

The use of vegetable dyes is a key feature of Kullu handloom products, which are losing market share to synthetic alternatives at the 2024 Kullu Dussehra fair.

Vehicle Overloading of Natural Gas Canisters

Overloading of natural gas canisters in vehicles occurs when gas cylinders are filled beyond their certified pressure limits or when the number of cylinders exceeds safety regulations. This practice increases the risk of leaks, explosions, or fires, particularly in confined spaces like buses. Overloading canisters can compromise valve integrity and cause rapid pressure changes, leading to dangerous failures. Regulatory agencies set strict limits on the amount and pressure of CNG stored in vehicles, but enforcement challenges and corruption have allowed violations. Proper inspection and maintenance are critical to preventing accidents related to overpressurized or improperly installed gas cylinders.

Why in news?

The fatal bus fire was linked to concerns about overloading of CNG canisters, prompting authorities to enforce stricter inspections and safety checks on all CNG-powered public transport vehicles.

Very Low Frequency (VLF) Radar Stations

Very Low Frequency (VLF) radar stations operate in the 3–30 kHz range and are primarily used for communication with submarines and for geophysical research. VLF waves can penetrate seawater up to 20 meters, enabling communication with submerged vessels. These stations require large antenna arrays and are often located in remote or forested areas to minimize interference. VLF radar can also detect ionospheric disturbances and monitor natural phenomena such as lightning and solar flares. The infrastructure footprint can disrupt local ecosystems due to the size of antennas and electromagnetic emissions.

Why in news?

A proposed VLF radar station is planned for construction in the Damagundam Reserve Forest, raising environmental concerns about habitat disruption and deforestation.

Vidiyal Team

The Vidiyal team is a lesser-known community-based group involved in forest conservation and anti-poaching efforts in Kerala. It works in tandem with government units like the Cheetah Squad to enhance intelligence sharing and community engagement. The team focuses on rehabilitating former poachers and integrating them into conservation activities. Vidiyal means “dawn” in Tamil and Malayalam, symbolizing new beginnings for reformed individuals. Their grassroots approach improves local awareness and reduces wildlife crimes by building trust between forest authorities and villagers in sensitive forest regions.

Why in news?

The Vidiyal teams collaboration with the Cheetah Squad was emphasized during an event honoring reformed poacher Kunjumon for his conservation contributions.

Village Land-Use Plans in Tanzania

Village land-use plans in Tanzania are detailed maps and documents outlining land allocation, usage, and management within a village boundary. They are essential for issuing CCROs and formalizing land rights under the Village Land Act of 1999. Preparation involves surveying, community consultations, and approval by local authorities. Less than 10% of Tanzanian villages have completed these plans due to high costs and technical challenges. These plans aim to balance individual land rights with communal resource management, protect natural resources, and reduce land conflicts. They are critical for rural development and sustainable land governance.

Why in news?

The slow completion of village land-use plans limits the issuance of CCROs, leaving many rural landholders without formal legal recognition of their land rights.

Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation Centre (PVMBG)

The PVMBG is Indonesia’s primary agency for monitoring volcanic and seismic activity. It operates a network of over 130 seismic stations and observation posts near active volcanoes. Established under the Geological Agency of Indonesia, it uses real-time data collection technology to provide early warnings. The center focuses on volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and landslides across Indonesia’s archipelago. PVMBG collaborates with international scientific institutions for disaster risk reduction. It also conducts public education programs and issues hazard maps to inform local communities. The agency’s work is critical for Indonesia, home to more than 130 active volcanoes.

Why in news?

PVMBG officials recently reported on the eruptions of Mount Marapi, providing updates on volcanic activity and its effects on nearby populations.

Voluntary Carbon Markets

Voluntary carbon markets allow individuals, companies, and organizations to purchase carbon credits outside of regulatory requirements to offset emissions. These markets support diverse projects, including reforestation, renewable energy, and methane capture. Unlike compliance markets, they lack uniform regulation, leading to variable standards and verification processes. The Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and the Gold Standard are prominent certification bodies ensuring project credibility. Voluntary markets have grown rapidly but face criticism for inconsistent quality and potential greenwashing, where claimed offsets do not correspond to actual emission reductions.

Why in news?

Voluntary carbon markets are under examination due to concerns about exaggerated environmental benefits and the role of offsets in corporate net-zero claims.

Wagad Breed

The Wagad breed is native to the Wagad region of southern Rajasthan and parts of Maharashtra. It is a hardy breed known for its resilience to heat and drought. Wagad cattle are primarily used for milk production, with milk containing A2 beta-casein protein, and are also employed in draft work. Their coat is usually white or light grey, which helps reflect sunlight and maintain body temperature. This breed has a calm temperament and strong disease resistance, making it suitable for extensive farming systems. Wagad cattle contribute to the livelihood of tribal and rural communities.

Why in news?

Wagad cattle are included in Maharashtras official list of indigenous breeds under the ‘Rajyamata-Gomata’ scheme to encourage conservation and use in 2024.

Water Vessels in Tree Rings

Water vessels are microscopic tubular structures in tree rings that transport water from roots to leaves. Their size and density vary depending on environmental conditions such as rainfall and temperature. In wetter years, vessels tend to be larger and more numerous, while drought years produce smaller, fewer vessels. The arrangement and composition of these vessels within growth rings help scientists infer past climate conditions and tree health. Water vessels are especially prominent in hardwood species and are crucial for understanding the physiological response of trees to environmental stressors.

Why in news?

Water vessels within tree rings were analyzed in the recent dendrochronology study to assess how coastal flooding affects tree physiology in Delaware and New Jersey.

West Nile Virus (WNV)

West Nile virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus primarily maintained in bird populations and transmitted by mosquitoes, especially species like Culex univittatus. It was first identified in Uganda in 1937 and has since spread globally, causing outbreaks in Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Americas. WNV infections in humans range from mild flu-like symptoms to severe neurological disease. Birds serve as amplifying hosts, while mosquitoes act as vectors, transmitting the virus between birds and occasionally to humans and horses. The virus persists in warm climates where mosquito breeding is prolific, and surveillance focuses on bird-mosquito interactions to predict outbreaks.

Why in news?

West Nile virus is in the news due to increasing outbreaks in Europe and neighboring regions, with Culex univittatus identified as a key vector in West Asia and the Middle East.

Western Ghats

The Western Ghats is a mountain range along the western coast of India, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It hosts one of the world’s eight “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity, with over 7,400 species of plants and animals, many endemic. The region plays important role in monsoon weather patterns and water cycles, feeding several major rivers. It contains tropical rainforests, grasslands, and montane forests, supporting species like the Nilgiri Tahr and Lion-tailed Macaque. Conservation efforts focus on preventing habitat fragmentation due to agriculture, mining, and urbanization.

Why in news?

The Western Ghats are central to discussions by the Habitats Trust at the Chanakya Defence Dialogue 2024, denoting their ecological importance and conservation challenges.

Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot

The Western Ghats is a mountain range along the western coast of India, recognized as one of the eight “hottest” biodiversity hotspots in the world. It hosts over 7,400 species of plants and animals, with more than 1,800 endemic species. The region has tropical evergreen forests, montane forests, and grasslands. It is crucial for monsoon weather patterns and water resources in peninsular India. The Western Ghats also contain several protected areas, including tiger reserves and national parks, which help preserve its unique ecosystems. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2012.

Why in news?

The Choradenahalli State Forest, part of the Western Ghats, was designated as a buffer zone to protect biodiversity and support tiger conservation efforts.

Western Hoolock Gibbon

The Western Hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) is Indias only ape species, primarily found in Assam and parts of Northeast India. It is an arboreal primate relying on continuous forest canopy for movement. Western Hoolock gibbons are monogamous and known for their loud, complex songs used for communication and territory marking. They are classified as Endangered due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Their diet mainly consists of fruits, leaves, and flowers. The species plays important role in seed dispersal, aiding forest regeneration.

Why in news?

The Western Hoolock gibbons habitat in Assams Hollongapar Sanctuary is threatened by infrastructure development and deforestation, risking population decline due to loss of canopy connectivity.

White-winged Wood Duck (Asarcornis scutulata)

The White-winged Wood Duck is an endangered species native to the wetlands and forested areas of Northeast India, including Dibru Saikhowa National Park. It is a large, nocturnal waterfowl with distinctive white patches on its wings visible during flight. The species depends on undisturbed forest wetlands and is threatened by habitat loss and hunting. It is listed under CITES Appendix I and the IUCN Red List as endangered. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and reducing human disturbances. The species is culturally to some indigenous communities in Assam.

Why in news?

The White-winged Wood Duck is one of the endangered species protected within Dibru Saikhowa National Park, underlining the parks role in conserving rare wildlife.

Wick System in Hydroponics

The wick system is one of the simplest hydroponic methods, where a wick transfers nutrient solution from a reservoir to the plant roots by capillary action. It requires no pumps or electricity, making it low-cost and easy to maintain. Typically used for small plants like herbs and leafy greens, it is less efficient for larger or water-demanding crops. The system can suffer from limited oxygen supply and nutrient delivery. It is suitable for beginners and educational purposes due to its simplicity and minimal setup.

Why in news?

The wick system is mentioned as part of hydroponics methods promoted under Indias MIDH initiative to encourage sustainable and accessible urban farming solutions.

Wild Citrus Relatives of Assam

Wild citrus relatives in Assam include species genetically distinct from cultivated citrus, found in forested areas of the Brahmaputra valley. These wild species harbor valuable genetic traits such as disease resistance, drought tolerance, and unique flavors. They contribute to the genetic pool used in breeding programs aimed at improving cultivated citrus crops. Many wild citrus plants grow in undisturbed habitats, often overlooked in conservation. Their survival is crucial for maintaining biodiversity and agricultural sustainability. Loss of these wild relatives due to habitat destruction threatens future citrus crop resilience and adaptation to climate change.

Why in news?

Wild citrus relatives in Assams citrus belt face risks from habitat destruction and agricultural expansion, endangering genetic resources vital for citrus breeding and ecosystem health.

History (India / World) & Culture

Marburg Virus

The Marburg virus is a filovirus closely related to Ebola, causing severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. First identified in 1967 during outbreaks in Germany and Serbia linked to African green monkeys, it has a high fatality rate, up to 88%. The virus is transmitted to humans from fruit bats and spreads through direct contact with infected bodily fluids. It can cause fever, bleeding, organ failure, and death. Marburg virus outbreaks are rare but severe, primarily occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. There are no licensed vaccines or specific antiviral treatments, making containment and supportive care crucial.

Why in news?

The Marburg virus caused a recent deadly outbreak in Rwanda, with Egyptian fruit bats identified as the natural reservoir.

Solar Hydrogen Microgrids

Solar hydrogen microgrids combine solar power generation with hydrogen production and storage to provide continuous electricity, especially in remote areas. Solar panels generate electricity, which electrolyzes water to produce hydrogen. This hydrogen is stored and later used in fuel cells to generate power when solar input is unavailable, ensuring a stable supply. Such microgrids reduce reliance on fossil fuels and diesel generators, lowering carbon emissions. They are particularly useful in harsh, inaccessible regions like Ladakh, where conventional grid power is impractical. The technology supports energy security and sustainability in military and civilian applications.

Why in news?

A solar hydrogen microgrid has been installed in Chushul to provide green, reliable power to military installations in a remote and high-altitude area with no grid connectivity.

SVTGs (Standard Veterinary Treatment Guidelines)

Standard Veterinary Treatment Guidelines (SVTGs) are systematically developed protocols designed to assist veterinarians in diagnosing, treating, and preventing animal diseases. They standardize care to improve treatment outcomes and reduce misuse of drugs. SVTGs include detailed recommendations on vaccination schedules, biosecurity measures, and management practices tailored to specific diseases and species. These guidelines are periodically updated based on the latest scientific research and field data. They help in controlling outbreaks, ensuring animal welfare, and minimizing economic losses in livestock industries.

Why in news?

SVTGs for poultry have been updated to emphasize diagnosis, treatment, vaccination, and biosecurity measures against Infectious Bursal Disease, reflecting its ongoing threat to poultry health and production.

Swell Surge Forecast System

The Swell Surge Forecast System was developed by INCOIS and launched in February 2020 to provide early warnings of dangerous swell waves along coastlines. It uses a combination of satellite altimetry data, wave buoys, and numerical wave models to predict the height, timing, and impact of swell surges. This system helps fishermen and coastal populations avoid hazardous marine conditions. Swell surges are long-period waves generated by distant storms, distinct from local wind waves. The system is among the first operational swell surge forecasting tools in the Indian Ocean region.

Why in news?

The Swell Surge Forecast System issued warnings in October 2024 for high swell waves threatening Indian coastal areas, aiding in disaster risk reduction.

Vitamin C Deficiency

Vitamin C deficiency occurs when dietary intake is insufficient to meet the body’s needs. It impairs collagen production, antioxidant defense, and immune function. Deficiency symptoms include fatigue, gum disease, poor wound healing, and bruising. Chronic deficiency leads to scurvy. Vitamin C is abundant in fresh fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, strawberries, and bell peppers. The body cannot synthesize vitamin C, requiring regular dietary intake. Deficiency is rare in developed countries but can occur due to malnutrition, restrictive diets, or malabsorption disorders. Monitoring vitamin C status is important for at-risk groups to prevent complications.

Why in news?

Vitamin C deficiency is increasing due to dietary trends like beige diets, which are low in fresh produce, contributing to nutritional health issues and hospitalizations.

PAU-Certified Seeds

PAU-certified seeds are varieties developed and approved by Punjab Agricultural University. These seeds are bred for local adaptability, high yield, and quality traits. They can be saved and replanted by farmers without loss of vigor or yield. PAU certification ensures seed purity, germination rate, and disease resistance standards. Certified seeds are cheaper than hybrid seeds, making them accessible to small-scale farmers. Varieties like PR-126, a popular PAU-certified paddy, have higher milling out-turn ratios (~65%-70%) and consistent yields, contributing to their preference over hybrid seeds in Punjabs rice cultivation.

Why in news?

PAU-certified seeds like PR-126 are central to debates in Punjab due to hybrid seeds being sold fraudulently under their name, causing confusion over seed quality and milling results.

Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban 2.0

Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban 2.0 (SBM-U 2.0) is a government initiative launched to improve urban sanitation and waste management across Indian cities. It focuses on legacy landfill remediation, solid waste management, and promoting sustainable urban environments. The program supports converting old landfill sites into usable green spaces or parks. It builds on the success of the first phase of Swachh Bharat Mission, emphasizing scientific waste processing and community participation. SBM-U 2.0 allocates funds to municipal bodies for waste infrastructure upgrades and environmental restoration projects, aiming to reduce urban pollution and promote public health.

Why in news?

The mission is funding and guiding projects like the Bopal Ghuma landfill remediation and ecological park redevelopment in Ahmedabad.

MIDORI Prize for Biodiversity

The MIDORI Prize for Biodiversity is an international award recognizing outstanding contributions to biodiversity conservation. Established in 2006 by the AEON Environmental Foundation in Japan, it honors individuals or organizations advancing ecosystem preservation and sustainable use of natural resources. The prize is awarded biennially and includes a monetary reward and a certificate. Recipients come from diverse backgrounds, including scientists, activists, and community leaders. The award emphasizes innovative approaches and community-based conservation. It has helped raise global awareness about biodiversity challenges and successes since its inception.

Why in news?

Vera Voronova, executive director of ACBK, won the MIDORI Prize for Biodiversity 2024 for her leadership in Kazakhstans environmental conservation efforts.

History (India / World) & Culture

Archaeological Survey of India (AnSI)

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established in 1861 and is responsible for archaeological research, conservation, and preservation of cultural heritage in India. It manages thousands of monuments, sites, and excavations across the country. ASI conducts systematic excavations and scientific studies of ancient artifacts, human remains, and structures. It collaborates with research institutes for multidisciplinary studies, including genomic and palaeoscience research. ASI maintains extensive archives and databases on Indias archaeological heritage, playing a vital role in understanding the subcontinents history from prehistoric times to the medieval period.

Why in news?

ASI is collaborating with the Birbal Sahni Institute to analyze ancient DNA from skeletal remains in South Asia, aiming to shed light on genetic ancestry and migration patterns.

Ardhamagadhi Prakrit

Ardhamagadhi Prakrit is an ancient Middle Indo-Aryan language used primarily in Jain scriptures and secular literature. It is considered a dialect of the broader Prakrit language family and was prevalent around the 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE. Ardhamagadhi literally means “half-Magadhi,” linking it to the Magadhi language of eastern India. It served as a lingua franca for common people, distinct from the elite classical Sanskrit. The language preserves many archaic features and provides important linguistic data for understanding the evolution of modern Indo-Aryan languages. It was the medium for key Jain texts like the Agamas.

Why in news?

The Gatha Saptashati is composed in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, denoting the languages historical and literary significance.

Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda is one of the four canonical Vedas of Hinduism, composed approximately between 1200-1000 BCE. It consists of 20 books containing hymns, spells, and incantations focused on everyday life, healing, and protection, unlike other Vedas that emphasize ritual sacrifice. It includes early references to Ayurveda, traditional Indian medicine, and covers topics such as social customs, magic, and practical concerns. The text reflects a blend of spiritual and pragmatic knowledge, denoting health, prosperity, and safeguarding against evil forces. It is considered a foundational scripture for both religious and medicinal traditions in ancient India.

Why in news?

Chants from the Atharva Veda were used during the naming ceremony of the Indian Coast Guards new Fast Patrol Vessels Adamya and Akshar, underscoring its ritual significance.

Battle of Talikota

The Battle of Talikota occurred in 1565 between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan Sultanates alliance. The defeat led to the sacking of Vijayanagaras capital, Hampi, marking the beginning of the empires decline. The battle involved a coalition of five Muslim sultanates – Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar, and Berar. The loss caused power shift in South India, with Vijayanagara rulers retreating to secondary centers like Chandragiri. Despite the defeat, the empire persisted for several decades, maintaining some control over southern territories.

Why in news?

The aftermath of this battle is linked to the rise of Chandragiri as a secondary capital, as referenced in newly found copper plate inscriptions.

Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)

The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) was established in 1950 under India’s Ministry of External Affairs to encourage cultural diplomacy. It promotes Indian languages, arts, and heritage worldwide through scholarships, cultural events, and academic exchanges. ICCR supports classical languages and organizes conferences to enhance international cultural relations. Its headquarters are in New Delhi, with numerous regional offices globally. ICCR collaborates with foreign institutions to preserve and promote India’s cultural legacy, including classical dance, music, and literature. It plays a strategic role in India’s soft power diplomacy by connecting cultural communities across continents.

Why in news?

ICCR hosted a conference in Colombo in October 2024 to discuss granting classical language status to Pali, involving Buddhist monks and scholars from multiple countries.

INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage)

Founded in 1984, INTACH is a non-profit organization focused on heritage conservation across India. It operates through chapters nationwide, engaging in preservation, restoration, and public awareness of cultural heritage. INTACH works with government bodies and experts to ensure historical accuracy in restoration projects, emphasizing the use of original materials and traditional construction methods. It also promotes community involvement and education to safeguard India’s diverse heritage for future generations. INTACH has been instrumental in conserving monuments, buildings, and intangible cultural assets across urban and rural India.

Why in news?

INTACH Bengaluru chapters convener Meera Iyer brought into light the importance of preserving the Lalbagh bandstand with authentic restoration techniques.

International Gita Mahotsav

The International Gita Mahotsav is an annual cultural and religious festival held in Kurukshetra, celebrating the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. It features spiritual discourses, cultural performances, exhibitions, and seminars attracting pilgrims nationally and internationally. The event marks Kurukshetras historical role as the battlefield of the Mahabharata and a center of Hindu philosophy. It promotes interfaith dialogue and yoga sessions, enhancing spiritual tourism. The festival also supports local artisans and vendors, boosting the economy. It is organized by the Haryana government with participation from religious scholars and cultural groups.

Why in news?

The International Gita Mahotsav is the key event around which the Divya Kurukshetra cleanliness campaign was launched to ensure a clean and spiritually uplifting environment for attendees.

Jayaprakash Narayan

Jayaprakash Narayan (1902–1979) was an Indian independence activist and political leader known for advocating total revolution combining social, political, and economic reforms. He studied at the University of California, Berkeley, and later at the London School of Economics. Narayan was imprisoned multiple times by the British during the freedom struggle. Post-independence, he became critical of the governments policies, focusing on fighting corruption and inequality. His leadership of the 1974 JP Movement marked a turning point in Indian politics. He declined the Bharat Ratna award in 1976, believing his work was not yet complete.

Why in news?

Jayaprakash Narayans 122nd birth anniversary was marked, renewing interest in his role as a key figure in Indian political reform and civil rights movements.

Kullu Dussehra Festival

Kullu Dussehra is a week-long festival celebrated in the Kullu Valley of Himachal Pradesh, marking the victory of good over evil. It is unique because it begins on the tenth day of Navratri and continues for seven days after Dussehra, unlike other regions where it ends on the tenth day. The festival features processions of local deities idols carried from surrounding villages to the Kullu town temple. It is a major cultural event that supports local economies by providing artisans and traders a platform to sell traditional crafts and goods.

Why in news?

The 2024 Kullu Dussehra fair is witnessing decreased sales for traditional artisans due to rising competition from plastic goods and online shopping.

Kullu Handloom Weaving

Kullu handloom weaving is a traditional craft from the Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh, known for producing shawls, mufflers, and sweaters using natural wool and vegetable dyes. The weaving employs pit looms, where the weaver sits in a pit below ground level for better control. Patterns often depict local flora, fauna, and cultural motifs unique to the Himalayan region. The craft relies on hand spinning and centuries-old techniques passed down through generations. Kullu handlooms contribute to the local economy and cultural identity but face threats from industrialization and synthetic textiles.

Why in news?

Kullu handloom weavers are facing reduced sales and visibility at the 2024 Kullu Dussehra fair due to competition from factory-made and synthetic textile products.

Machilipatnam

Machilipatnam is a historic port town in Andhra Pradesh, known for its role in maritime trade since the 16th century. It was a major Dutch and British trading post. The town is famous for Machilipatnam Kalamkari, a traditional hand-painted or block-printed textile art. Machilipatnams craft heritage includes weaving, dyeing, and natural fiber crafts. It remains a cultural hub for artisans and is very important in government initiatives promoting indigenous crafts. The towns coastal location influences its craft materials and techniques, linking it historically to global trade routes and contemporary craft markets.

Why in news?

Machilipatnam hosts the APHDCs 120-day training program aimed at teaching sustainable water hyacinth craft to local artisans.

Mansraj, Jahangirs Pet Blackbuck

Mansraj was the name of Emperor Jahangirs favorite blackbuck, accidentally killed in 1607. Jahangir ordered the construction of Hiran Minar as a memorial for Mansraj, reflecting the rare practice of commemorating an animal with a monumental tomb. This act puts stress on Jahangirs personal attachment to Mansraj and the blackbucks esteemed status in Mughal court life. Mansrajs death and the subsequent monument illustrate the emperors interest in nature, hunting, and animal symbolism. The name Mansraj is not widely documented outside Mughal records, making it a unique historical reference to an individual animal.

Why in news?

Mansraj is noted as the blackbuck whose death inspired the creation of Hiran Minar, symbolizing the emperors affection and the broader cultural value of blackbucks during the Mughal era.

Mufti Mohammad Sayeed

Mufti Mohammad Sayeed was a prominent Kashmiri politician and founder of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) in 1999. He began his political career with the Democratic National Conference before its merger with the National Conference. Sayeed served twice as the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir and was known for his efforts to promote peace and dialogue in the region. He was also the first former Union Home Minister from Jammu and Kashmir. His political legacy includes attempts to balance regional autonomy with integration into Indias federal structure.

Why in news?

Mufti Mohammad Sayeeds political origins in the DNC show the historical roots of his influence and the evolution of Kashmirs political parties.

Muisca Confederation

The Muisca Confederation was a pre-Columbian indigenous political alliance in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, existing from around 800 AD until Spanish conquest in the 16th century. It consisted of several autonomous chiefdoms ruled by zipas and zaques. The Muisca were skilled in agriculture, goldworking, and salt production. Their economy included trade of salt, emeralds, and textiles. The confederation is famous for the ritual of El Dorado, where leaders covered themselves in gold dust. Their society was organized with complex religious and social structures influencing the Andean region.

Why in news?

The Muisca Confederation is referenced due to renewed archaeological interest and discussions on indigenous heritage during COP16 in Cali, Colombia.

Mysore Pak

Mysore Pak is a traditional South Indian sweet from Karnataka made primarily of gram flour, ghee, and sugar. It originated in the royal kitchens of Mysore during the early 20th century. The sweet is known for its porous, melt-in-the-mouth texture and rich buttery flavor. Preparation involves roasting gram flour in ghee and mixing it with hot sugar syrup until it solidifies. Mysore Pak is often prepared during festivals and special occasions. Despite its simplicity, the precise ghee-to-flour ratio is crucial for the perfect texture. It remains a popular sweet across India, especially in Karnataka.

Why in news?

Mysore Pak is promoted under Karnatakas gastronomy tourism theme to showcase traditional sweets and attract visitors interested in culinary heritage.

National Centre of Cinematography and the Moving Image (CNC)

The National Centre of Cinematography and the Moving Image (CNC) is a French government agency founded in 1946 to support cinema and audiovisual arts. It provides funding for film production, promotes French cinema globally, and conducts research on media’s cultural and economic impacts. CNC plays role in shaping France’s cultural policies and preserving its cinematic heritage through archiving and restoration. It also collects detailed data on audience behavior and tourism influenced by films. The agency influences both creative production and market regulation within the French audiovisual sector.

Why in news?

CNCs January 2024 study found that 10% of tourists visiting France were motivated by films or TV, with “Emily in Paris” inspiring 38% of those trips, denoting CNCs role in linking cinema and tourism.

National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC)

The National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) is a large-scale cultural and heritage project located at Lothal, Gujarat. It aims to preserve and showcase Indias maritime history and legacy, including ancient ports, shipbuilding, and navigation technologies. NMHC features museums, galleries, and replicas of historic ships and lighthouses. Phase 1B includes the construction of the Light House Museum, funded by DGLL, which marks the evolution of lighthouse technology and maritime navigation aids. NMHC integrates heritage conservation with educational and tourism objectives, promoting awareness of Indias maritime past.

Why in news?

DGLL is funding the Light House Museum at NMHC Lothal, linking heritage conservation with lighthouse and navigational history.

National Mission for Manuscripts

The National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM) is an Government of India initiative launched in 2003 to locate, conserve, and digitize manuscripts from diverse Indian languages and scripts. It aims to preserve India’s manuscript heritage by creating a comprehensive database and facilitating scholarly research. The mission supports restoration, cataloging, and public awareness programs. NMM collaborates with universities, libraries, and cultural institutions to protect fragile manuscripts from decay and loss. It also promotes the use of technology in manuscript conservation and accessibility for future generations.

Why in news?

The future direction of the National Mission for Manuscripts was discussed in a Ministry of Culture meeting attended by Chamu Krishna Shastry.

Nishan Sahib

The Nishan Sahib is the triangular Sikh flag flown outside every gurdwara. It is typically saffron or deep orange in color and features the Khanda symbol, which consists of a double-edged sword in the center, surrounded by a circular emblem and two single-edged swords. The flag is mounted on a tall flagpole called the Chaur Sahib. The Nishan Sahib represents Sikh sovereignty, unity, and faith. It is replaced and ceremonially raised during important Sikh festivals and events. The flagpole is often draped with a cloth and cleaned regularly as a mark of respect.

Why in news?

The Nishan Sahib was prominently displayed at the gurdwara where Hardeep Singh Nijjar was killed, denoting the religious and political significance of the site.

Non-bailable Offences in Colonial India

Non-bailable offences are crimes for which bail is not a right but granted at the discretion of the court. Under the Criminal Tribes Act, communities were stereotyped as habitually committing such offences, justifying harsh preventive measures. In colonial India, non-bailable offences included serious crimes like robbery, dacoity, and murder, but the Act extended this categorization to entire communities without individual proof. This led to preventive detention, forced settlements, and restrictions on movement. The Acts classification blurred lines between crime and community identity, institutionalizing collective punishment and undermining principles of individual justice.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court referenced the Acts use of non-bailable offence stereotypes to strike down discriminatory prison rules affecting denotified tribes.

Oakhurst Rock Shelter

Oakhurst Rock Shelter is an archaeological site in southern Africa known for its well-preserved stratigraphy and ancient human remains. It has yielded important artifacts and fossils dating back tens of thousands of years. The site provides critical evidence of early human habitation and cultural practices in the region. Excavations have uncovered stone tools, hearths, and skeletal remains, enabling multidisciplinary studies including archaeogenetics. The shelters stable microenvironment has helped preserve DNA better than many other African sites, despite the regions typically challenging climate for ancient DNA preservation. It contributes to understanding southern Africas prehistoric population continuity.

Why in news?

Recent archaeogenetic research at Oakhurst Rock Shelter produced 13 ancient genomes, denoting southern Africas continuous population history and cultural evolution over millennia.

Operation Blue Star

Operation Blue Star was a military operation carried out by the Indian Army in June 1984 to remove Sikh militants led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar. The operation resulted in casualties and damage to the holiest Sikh shrine, sparking widespread outrage among Sikhs worldwide. It marked a turning point in Sikh-Government of India relations and contributed to the rise of the Khalistan movement. The event also led to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi later that year by her Sikh bodyguards, which triggered anti-Sikh riots.

Why in news?

Operation Blue Star is historically linked to the origins of the Khalistan movement, which remains a core issue in the ongoing India-Canada diplomatic tensions following Nijjars assassination.

Oral Transmission in Ancient Indian Education

Oral transmission was the primary method of teaching in ancient Indian education systems like the Gurukul. Knowledge, including sacred texts and philosophical doctrines, was memorized and passed down verbally from teacher to student. This method ensured accuracy through repetitive recitation and strict memorization techniques. Texts like the Vedas were preserved for millennia without written records. Oral transmission required intense discipline and was supported by mnemonic devices and structured learning sequences. It encourageed deep understanding and internalization of material. This tradition declined with the advent of printed texts but remains respected in Vedic studies.

Why in news?

The revival of Gurukul schools inherently involves reinstating oral transmission methods as part of preserving authentic traditional Sanskrit education.

Pakhawaj Drum

The pakhawaj is a barrel-shaped, two-headed drum used primarily in Dhrupad music. It produces deep, resonant bass tones and sharp treble sounds, essential for maintaining rhythm in classical performances. The instrument is played horizontally, with both hands striking the drum heads, which are made of animal skin. The pakhawaj is considered a precursor to the tabla and has a history linked to ancient temple music. It requires complex finger and palm techniques to produce varied sounds and is integral to the traditional Dhrupad style, complementing its slow and measured tempo.

Why in news?

The pakhawaj is brought into light in the upcoming Dhrupad recital by Ustad F Wasifuddin Dagar at the IIC Experience festival.

Pali Language

Pali is an ancient Middle Indo-Aryan language closely associated with Theravāda Buddhism. It is the liturgical language of the Pāli Canon, the earliest Buddhist scriptures. Pali was never a vernacular language but was used primarily for religious texts and oral transmission. It influenced many Southeast Asian languages and remains important in Buddhist scholarship. The language’s script varies by region, including Burmese, Thai, and Roman transliterations. Pali’s classical language status is debated due to its historical significance and role in preserving early Buddhist teachings, despite it no longer being spoken as a native language.

Why in news?

The conferment of classical language status to Pali was discussed at the ICCR conference in Colombo, reflecting efforts to recognize its cultural and historical importance internationally.

Pāṇini

Pāṇini was an ancient Indian grammarian from the 4th century BCE who authored the Ashtadhyayi, a comprehensive grammar of Sanskrit. His work systematically codified Sanskrit grammar into nearly 4,000 rules, establishing a formal linguistic framework. Pāṇinis grammar is considered one of the earliest known examples of descriptive linguistics and has influenced modern computational linguistics and formal language theory. His sutras are concise, using meta-rules and transformations, making the grammar highly efficient. Pāṇinis methods predate and anticipate concepts used in modern computer science, such as context-sensitive grammar and generative grammar.

Why in news?

Pāṇinis contributions were referenced by Uttar Pradeshs Chief Minister in a speech promoting Sanskrits scientific and linguistic significance during a cultural event.

Pashupatinath Temple

The Pashupatinath Temple is a sacred Hindu temple complex located on the banks of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it is one of the oldest and most Shiva temples in Nepal, dating back to the 5th century CE. The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and attracts thousands of pilgrims, especially during the Maha Shivaratri festival. The complex features pagoda-style architecture and houses many smaller shrines. Cremation rituals are performed on the riverbanks, making it a vital cultural and religious site for both Hindus and Buddhists.

Why in news?

Pashupatinath Temple is situated along the Bagmati River, which flooded extensively in October 2024, raising concerns about damage to this important religious site.

Population Continuity in Southern Africa

Population continuity refers to the genetic stability of a population over extended periods without replacement by other groups. Southern Africa exhibits long-lasting genetic continuity, unlike Europe or Asia, where ancient DNA reveals multiple population turnovers. This continuity suggests stable habitation and cultural persistence over tens of thousands of years. It is supported by archaeogenetic data from sites like Oakhurst Rock Shelter. This phenomenon implies limited large-scale migrations or invasions disrupting local gene pools. It provides a unique model for studying human evolution and adaptation in African contexts, contributing to understanding the origins of modern human diversity.

Why in news?

The discovery of 13 ancient genomes at Oakhurst Rock Shelter confirms southern Africas exceptional population continuity, contrasting with other continents histories.

Prakrit Languages

Prakrit refers to a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages spoken in ancient India from around 600 BCE to 1000 CE. These languages were used in everyday communication and literature, contrasting with the more formal Sanskrit. Prakrits include several dialects like Ardhamagadhi and Maharashtri, which influenced regional languages such as Marathi and Gujarati. Jain scriptures and early Buddhist texts were composed in Prakrit. The term “Prakrit” means “natural” or “ordinary,” reflecting their use by common people. Prakrit languages contributed to the development of classical Indian drama and poetry.

Why in news?

India recognized Prakrit as a classical language in October 2024, denoting its extensive literary history and impact on modern Indian languages.

Queer Theory

Queer theory emerged in the early 1990s as an academic field analyzing and challenging normative ideas about sex, gender, and sexuality. It critiques heteronormativity and binary gender categories, exploring fluidity and the social construction of identity. Influenced by post-structuralism and theorists like Judith Butler and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory questions fixed identities and embraces multiplicity. It intersects with feminism, cultural studies, and LGBTQ+ activism. Queer theory also examines power structures and language, emphasizing the performative nature of identity and sexuality. It remains a critical framework in gender and sexuality studies.

Why in news?

Queer theory underpins ongoing 2024 academic and social debates on gender identity, fluidity, and non-binary recognition.

Ragi Mudde

Ragi Mudde is a traditional staple food from Karnataka, made by cooking finger millet flour with water to form soft, dense balls. It is rich in calcium, fiber, and essential minerals, making it highly nutritious. Typically eaten with spicy sambar or leafy vegetable soups, it is favored for its energy-providing qualities, especially in rural areas. Ragi Mudde has ancient origins linked to the agricultural practices of South India. It is gluten-free and considered beneficial for diabetic patients. Preparation involves stirring millet flour into boiling water until it thickens, then shaping it by hand into balls.

Why in news?

Ragi Mudde is brought into light as part of Karnatakas gastronomy tourism initiative to promote local cuisine and cultural heritage through food experiences.

Raigad Fort

Raigad Fort, located in Maharashtra, was the capital of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Built on a hilltop, it stands at approximately 820 meters above sea level, providing natural defense. The fort features a network of water tanks, watchtowers, and a royal palace complex. It was the site where Shivaji was crowned in 1674. Raigad’s strategic position allowed control over the surrounding region and trade routes. The British later recognized its military significance, with James Grant Duff comparing it to the Rock of Gibraltar. The fort is now a protected monument and popular trekking destination.

Why in news?

Raigad Fort is mentioned due to its strategic comparison with the Rock of Gibraltar by James Grant Duff, underscoring its military importance in Maratha history.

Samudra Manthan

The samudra manthan or “churning of the ocean” is a very important event in Hindu mythology where gods (Devas) and demons (Asuras) churn the cosmic ocean to obtain amrita, the nectar of immortality. This process involved Mount Mandara as the churning rod and the serpent Vasuki as the rope. The event produced several divine objects and beings, including the goddess Lakshmi, the moon, and Dhanvantri with his pot of amrita. The story symbolizes the struggle between good and evil and the emergence of divine knowledge and treasures from cosmic depths.

Why in news?

Samudra Manthan is referenced due to Dhanvantri emerging from it, whose birth anniversary was observed with major health projects launched in October 2024.

Sanchi Tree Bark Manuscripts

Sanchi tree bark manuscripts refer to ancient texts written on the inner bark of trees, primarily found in the Indian subcontinent. These manuscripts are rare and fragile, often preserved in dry climates. The bark used is typically from the Birch or Palmyra palm trees. They served as an early medium for recording religious, literary, and administrative documents before the widespread use of paper. The Sanchi site, famous for its Buddhist stupas, is a notable location where such bark manuscripts were discovered, shedding light on regional script development and cultural transmission.

Why in news?

The Sanchi tree bark manuscripts were referenced in the study of Assamese inscriptions, denoting the ancient script development and cultural heritage crucial to Assameses classical language status.

Sangam Literature

Sangam literature refers to the ancient Tamil poetic works composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. It is divided into akam (love and personal life) and puram (war, politics, and public life) genres. These texts were compiled by Tamil academies called Sangams. The literature offers vital information about the social, economic, and political life of early Tamil society. It includes famous works like Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar. Sangam poetry is noted for its refined language, symbolism, and vivid descriptions of nature. It is a mainstay of Tamil classical heritage and a subject of study at CICT.

Why in news?

Sangam literature is central to the Classical Tamil revival efforts supported by CICT and government programs promoting classical languages.

Sant Sewalal Maharaj

Sant Sewalal Maharaj was a revered saint within the Banjara community, known for his spiritual teachings and role in shaping the communitys religious practices. His philosophy emphasized devotion, community service, and moral integrity. Sewalal Maharajs followers consider him a spiritual guide who helped maintain social cohesion among Banjaras during periods of hardship. His teachings are preserved through oral traditions and are central to Banjara festivals and rituals. Several shrines and memorials dedicated to him exist in regions with Banjara populations.

Why in news?

Sant Sewalal Maharajs contributions are commemorated in the Banjara Virasat Museum, recently inaugurated to honor Banjara culture and spirituality.

Satavahana Dynasty

The Satavahana dynasty ruled parts of central and southern India from approximately the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Known for promoting trade, art, and culture, they were among the first Indian rulers to extensively use Prakrit languages in inscriptions and literature. Their capital was at Pratishthana (modern Paithan). The dynasty served as a cultural bridge between northern and southern India, facilitating the spread of Buddhism and Hinduism. They issued some of the earliest Indian coinage featuring portraits and legends in Prakrit script, reflecting a blend of indigenous and Hellenistic influences.

Why in news?

The Satavahana dynasty is referenced as the ruling house of King Hāla, the attributed author of the Gatha Saptashati, underscoring their cultural contributions.

Sephardic Jews

Sephardic Jews are descendants of the Jewish communities that lived in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) before their expulsion in 1492. They developed unique religious customs, language (Ladino), and cultural traditions distinct from Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. Sephardic Jews faced persecution during the Spanish Inquisition, leading many to convert, flee, or conceal their identity. Some became “conversos” or crypto-Jews, secretly maintaining Jewish practices. Sephardic influence extends to Mediterranean, North African, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities. Their historical presence is documented in many Iberian cities, including Valentia, where Columbuss maternal lineage is theorized to originate.

Why in news?

The documentary featuring Albardaner argues Columbus was a Sephardic Jew, emphasizing the hidden Jewish heritage of his maternal family from the Iberian Peninsula.

Shamanistic Traditions in Central Asia

Shamanistic traditions in Central Asia involve spiritual practices where shamans act as intermediaries between humans and the spirit world. These practices include rituals to honor animals, mountains, and natural elements, often linked to animism. Shamans perform ceremonies to ensure community well-being, environmental balance, and protection of sacred sites. In Kyrgyzstan, such traditions are deeply connected to the reverence of wildlife like the snow leopard, integrating cultural beliefs with conservation. Shamanism here includes the use of ritual objects such as drums and costumes, and oral transmission of knowledge through generations.

Why in news?

These shamanistic traditions form the spiritual basis for Indigenous Cultural Practitioners role in conserving snow leopard habitats in Kyrgyzstan.

Shikar-i Ahu Ba Ahu

Shikar-i ahu ba ahu is a traditional hunting technique involving the use of trained, castrated rams and ewes as decoys to attract wild blackbuck herds. Hunters would stealthily approach the herd once lured by the decoys and then launch a surprise attack, typically with firearms. This method is documented in the 12th-century Sanskrit manual Manasollasa by King Somesvara III. It gained popularity among Mughal princes who were restricted from staging large-scale hunts like qamargah. The technique allowed safer, more efficient hunting despite the slow and unreliable firearms of the period. Jahangir was a noted practitioner.

Why in news?

Shikar-i ahu ba ahu is brought into light as a distinctive Mughal hunting method used by Jahangir, illustrating adaptations in royal hunting customs involving firearms and decoy animals.

Sri Venkateswara Temple, Tirupati

The Sri Venkateswara temple in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, is one of the richest and most visited Hindu temples worldwide. Dedicated to Lord Venkateswara, an incarnation of Vishnu, the temple dates back to the 9th century CE. It is managed by the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams trust. The temple’s wealth includes donations from devotees, with annual revenues exceeding hundreds of millions of dollars. It is renowned for its unique laddu prasadam, a sweet offered to pilgrims. The temple architecture is Dravidian style, with a prominent gopuram (tower) and intricate carvings.

Why in news?

The temple is the venue for the Brahmotsavam festival in October 2024, drawing massive crowds and media attention for its religious significance and scale.

Starch-Rich Plants in Prehistoric Diets

Starch-rich plants such as tubers, bulbs, and seeds were in prehistoric human diets before widespread agriculture. These plants are high in carbohydrates but often contain tough cell walls and anti-nutrients, making raw starch hard to digest. Cooking breaks down these barriers, increasing caloric availability and nutrient absorption. Archaeobotanical evidence shows early humans gathered and processed starch-rich plants tens of thousands of years ago. The reliance on these plants likely influenced evolutionary changes in digestion, including amylase gene copy number. Some prehistoric populations specialized in starch-rich plant foraging, impacting migration and settlement patterns.

Why in news?

Genetic research links improved starch digestion from cooked starch-rich plants to the advent of fire use and cooking in early humans.

Tashbulak

Tashbulak is another medieval city site in Uzbekistans mountains, identified using drone-based lidar scanning. The site contains remnants of fortified structures and urban infrastructure, indicating settlement during the medieval era. Archaeological evidence suggests it was part of a network of cities involved in regional trade and cultural interaction. Its location in a remote, vegetated area made it difficult to detect before lidar use. Tashbulaks discovery provides insight into medieval Central Asian civilization, including city planning and defense mechanisms. The findings contribute to a broader understanding of historical human habitation in mountainous Central Asia.

Why in news?

Tashbulaks medieval remains were revealed by drone-based lidar, denoting the effectiveness of this technology in mapping hidden archaeological sites in Uzbekistan.

Travancore

Travancore was a princely state in the southwestern part of India, now part of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It was known for progressive administration and early adoption of modern education and healthcare systems. The state was ruled by the Travancore royal family until Indian independence in 1947. Travancore had a unique political system with a Diwan (prime minister) and a legislative council. It pioneered public health initiatives such as vaccination campaigns and hospital expansions. The state was also known for social reforms, including efforts to improve womens rights and caste equality under rulers like Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi.

Why in news?

Travancores health policies were shaped by its Durbar physician, Dr. Mary Poonen Lukose, who led medical administration and public health programs during the 1920s.

Tugunbulak

Tugunbulak is a medieval city site located in the mountains of Central Asia, specifically Uzbekistan. It was discovered through drone-based lidar, revealing urban layouts obscured by dense vegetation. The site provides evidence of ancient urban planning and architectural styles from the medieval period in this region. Tugunbulak’s uncovered structures include walls, streets, and building foundations, showing a complex settlement. The city contributes to understanding trade routes and cultural exchanges in Central Asia during the Middle Ages. Its discovery helps fill gaps in the regions historical record, previously limited due to difficult terrain and overgrowth.

Why in news?

Tugunbulak was recently uncovered by drone-based lidar technology, revealing medieval urban remains previously hidden in Uzbekistans mountainous landscapes.

US Aerial Bombs of World War II

US aerial bombs in World War II included a variety of designs, among them those equipped with dual impact detonators. These bombs ranged from general-purpose types to specialized incendiary and armor-piercing variants. The dual detonator system was introduced to maximize detonation success regardless of the bombs orientation on impact. US bomb designs were influenced by extensive testing and combat experience, leading to innovations in fuze technology. The bombs were deployed in large-scale bombing campaigns across Europe and the Pacific, impacting the wars outcome. Many unexploded ordnances from this era still pose risks .

Why in news?

The bomb found in Cologne is a remnant of US aerial ordnance from World War II, denoting ongoing risks from unexploded bombs in urban areas decades later.

Vaclav Havel

Vaclav Havel (1936–2011) was a Czech playwright, essayist, and political dissident who became the last president of Czechoslovakia and the first president of the Czech Republic. He was a leading figure in the Velvet Revolution of 1989, which peacefully ended communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Havels work focused on human rights, political freedom, and opposition to totalitarianism. He co-founded the Charter 77 movement, a human rights initiative challenging the communist government. Havels presidency emphasized democratic reforms and European integration. He is widely regarded as a symbol of resistance to oppression and a champion of civil society.

Why in news?

The Council of Europe Human Rights Prize honors Vaclav Havels legacy, linking his activism to current human rights defenders like Maria Corina Machado.

Vahanas in Hindu Rituals

Vahanas are divine vehicles or mounts used in Hindu iconography and rituals, each representing a deitys power or attributes. Common vahanas include the Garuda (eagle) for Vishnu, Nandi (bull) for Shiva, and Hanuman (monkey) for Rama. During festivals like Brahmotsavam, the deity is paraded on various vahanas, symbolizing different aspects of divinity and cosmic functions. The selection and sequence of vahanas vary by tradition and region. Vahanas also serve as a medium for devotees to connect physically and spiritually with the deity during processions.

Why in news?

The Brahmotsavam festival features the procession of Lord Venkateswara on multiple vahanas, a show attracting pilgrims and devotees during the October 2024 celebrations.

Valentia (Ancient Iberian City)

Valentia was a Roman-founded city established in 138 BCE on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, now modern-day Valencia, Spain. It became commercial and military hub during Roman and later Visigothic periods. Valentia had a diverse population, including Roman settlers, indigenous Iberians, and later Jewish communities. The city was known for its strategic port and agricultural wealth. Valentia’s Jewish population played an essential role in commerce and culture before the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492. The citys historical archives contain documents relevant to Sephardic Jewish history and the Reconquista era.

Why in news?

Valentia is mentioned as the maternal origin of Christopher Columbuss Jewish mother in Albardaners theory, linking Columbus to the Iberian Peninsulas Sephardic community.

Vijay Salaskar

Vijay Salaskar was a prominent encounter specialist in the Maharashtra Police, known for his role in eliminating several gangsters during the 1980s and 1990s. He was part of the Maharashtra Police Academy’s 1983 batch and developed a reputation for his aggressive tactics. Salaskar was killed during the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks while defending civilians. He was posthumously awarded for bravery. Salaskars career was marked by both commendations and controversies, including allegations of fake encounters. His death during the attacks made him a martyr figure in Maharashtra, symbolizing police sacrifice and the complex legacy of encounter specialists.

Why in news?

Salaskars legacy is often cited in ongoing debates about encounter specialists, especially in light of recent violent incidents involving police officers in Maharashtra.

Vijayanagara Copper Plate Inscriptions

are historical documents engraved on metal plates, primarily issued by Vijayanagara rulers to record land grants, royal decrees, and administrative orders. They serve as crucial primary sources for understanding the empires governance, territorial extent, and socio-economic conditions. These plates often include details about donors, recipients, and the locations of granted villages or lands. The inscriptions are written in languages such as Kannada, Telugu, and Sanskrit. Copper plates from Chandragiri specifically show the continued authority of Vijayanagara rulers after the fall of Hampi.

Why in news?

Recent discovery of copper plate inscriptions mentions a village donation under the Raja of Chandragiri, shedding light on post-Talikota Vijayanagara administration.

Vincent van Gogh Museum in Groot-Zundert

The Vincent van Gogh Museum in Groot-Zundert focuses on the artist’s early life and his family background. Unlike the more famous Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, this museum emphasizes Van Goghs childhood environment and the rural Brabant culture influencing his formative years. It houses personal artifacts, early sketches, and documents related to the Van Gogh family. The museum also hosts educational programs about mental health and creativity, linking Van Gogh’s struggles with modern awareness. It opened in 2001 and is operated by a local foundation dedicated to preserving Van Goghs legacy in his birthplace.

Why in news?

The museum gains attention during World Mental Health Day 2024 for its exhibits linking Van Goghs mental health challenges with his artistic development.

Science & Technology

Reparations for Transatlantic Slave Trade

Reparations for the transatlantic slave trade involve demands by Caribbean nations and organizations like CARICOM for compensation from former colonial powers for the economic and social damages caused by slavery. The movement seeks official apologies, financial payments, and development aid. CARICOM established a Reparations Commission in 2013 to coordinate claims and strategies. The reparations debate focuses on historical injustice, economic inequality, and social development. Some proposals include debt cancellation and investment in education and healthcare. The issue remains contentious internationally, with limited formal agreements reached.

Why in news?

CARICOM is actively urging the UK government to address reparations at the 2024 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Samoa.

Science & Technology

Red Dye No. 40

Red Dye No. 40, also known as Allura Red AC, is a synthetic azo dye widely used in foods, cosmetics, and medications. It was approved by the FDA in the early 20th century without extensive safety testing by s standards. It is derived from petroleum and is one of the most commonly consumed food dyes in the United States. Some studies have linked it to hyperactivity in children, though conclusive evidence is lacking. It is banned or restricted in certain countries like Norway and Austria. The dye is water-soluble and stable under heat and light, making it popular in processed foods.

Why in news?

Red Dye No. 40 is at the center of controversy in the FDAs outdated regulatory framework, with recent state bans and protests targeting its use in products like Kelloggs cereals.

5G Backhauling

5G backhauling is the transmission of data from 5G cell sites to the core network. It supports high-speed and low-latency connectivity by linking distributed radio access points. Backhaul methods include fiber optics, microwave links, and satellite communication. Fiber optics offer the highest speed and reliability but may be limited by geography. Microwave links provide wireless terrestrial backhaul over moderate distances. Satellite backhauling is used primarily in remote or inaccessible areas where terrestrial infrastructure is unavailable. The choice of backhaul impacts network performance, cost, and coverage, especially in rural deployments.

Why in news?

5G backhauling is brought into light as a strategic opportunity for satellite operators amid expanding terrestrial 5G networks, influencing the satellite spectrum allocation debate in India.

5G RAN (Radio Access Network)

5G RAN is the part of the 5G mobile network that connects user devices to the core network using radio frequencies. It handles radio signal transmission and reception between devices and base stations. 5G RAN supports technologies like Massive MIMO and beamforming to improve coverage and capacity. It operates across various frequency bands, including sub-6 GHz and millimeter wave bands. The architecture can be centralized, distributed, or virtualized, allowing flexible deployment. Open RAN initiatives promote multi-vendor interoperability, reducing reliance on single suppliers. Efficient RAN design is critical for low latency and high data rates in 5G networks.

Why in news?

India has successfully trialed its indigenous 5G RAN technology in the 3.6 GHz and 700 MHz bands, advancing domestic 5G infrastructure development.

Adaptive Camouflage

Adaptive camouflage refers to materials or systems that can change their appearance to blend with the environment dynamically. It uses technologies like electrochromic materials, thermochromic coatings, or microfluidic channels to alter color, pattern, or reflectivity. Military applications aim to reduce detection by visual, infrared, or radar sensors. Recent research includes bio-inspired designs mimicking cephalopods like octopuses. Adaptive camouflage can extend to wearable fabrics or vehicle coatings, improving survivability on the battlefield. The technology is still emerging with challenges in durability, power consumption, and real-time responsiveness.

Why in news?

Adaptive camouflage is one of the focus areas in the ADITI 2.0 innovation challenges announced in October 2024 to enhance stealth capabilities in defence technologies.

Agharkar Research Institute (ARI)

The Agharkar Research Institute was established in 1946 in Pune and operates under the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. It conducts multidisciplinary research spanning biology, biotechnology, and environmental sciences. ARI has made contributions in microbial technology, plant sciences, and neurobiology. The institute is equipped with advanced facilities for synthetic chemistry and molecular biology. It has international collaborations and holds multiple patents related to drug development and environmental bioremediation. ARI also offers specialized training in bioinformatics and molecular techniques for researchers and students.

Why in news?

ARI scientists developed new non-toxic molecules for Alzheimers treatment using synthetic and computational methods, advancing neurodegenerative disease research.

Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS)

The Bharatiya Antariksh Station is Indias first planned indigenous space station, targeted for development between 2028 and 2035. It will focus on weightlessness effects, algae-based nutrition and fuel production, and studying radiation impact on human health. BAS is designed to support long-duration space missions and enhance Indias capabilities in space biology research. It will succeed ISROs Gaganyaan mission and aims to maintain Indias presence in space habitation after the International Space Stations expected decommissioning by 2030. BAS represents a strategic advancement for India in space technology and research.

Why in news?

ISRO and DBT signed an agreement to conduct experiments for BAS, marking progress toward Indias independent space station development.

Boltzmann Machine

The Boltzmann machine is a type of stochastic recurrent neural network that models probability distributions using the Boltzmann distribution from statistical physics. Developed in the 1980s by Geoffrey Hinton and colleagues, it consists of binary units with symmetrical connections. Learning occurs by adjusting weights to minimize the divergence between the data and the models distribution, often using simulated annealing to find equilibrium states. Despite being computationally intensive, it enabled unsupervised learning and inspired later architectures like Restricted Boltzmann Machines (RBMs) and deep belief networks in deep learning.

Why in news?

Geoffrey Hinton received the Nobel Prize in Physics 2024 for his pioneering work on the Boltzmann machine and its foundational role in artificial intelligence advancements.

Bone Ossification Test

The bone ossification test evaluates skeletal maturity by analyzing X-rays of the hands and wrists. It measures the degree of ossification, the process where cartilage turns into bone, which begins during fetal development and continues until late adolescence. The test uses standardized growth charts and a scoring system for individual bones to estimate biological age within a typical margin of error of about two years. It provides an age range rather than an exact figure. This test is commonly used in forensic and legal contexts, especially when documentary age proof is unavailable or disputed, notably in India.

Why in news?

A Mumbai court ordered the bone ossification test to verify the age of an accused in a murder case involving former Maharashtra MLA Baba Siddique, who claimed to be a minor.

Bone Resorption

Bone resorption is a biological process where osteoclast cells break down bone tissue, releasing minerals like calcium into the bloodstream. It is a normal part of bone remodeling but becomes excessive in microgravity, leading to net bone loss. This process is regulated by hormones such as parathyroid hormone and calcitonin. In space, the lack of mechanical load reduces signals that inhibit osteoclast activity, accelerating bone resorption. The imbalance between resorption and formation causes weakened bones. Bone resorption rates can increase by up to 50% in astronauts during long-duration missions, contributing to osteoporosis-like symptoms.

Why in news?

NASA astronaut Sunita Williams experienced increased bone resorption during her extended stay on the ISS, impacting her bone density and mission health challenges.

EOS-06 Satellite

EOS-06 is an Indian Earth Observation Satellite launched by ISRO in 2023, part of the EOS series focused on atmospheric and oceanic studies. It carries a scatterometer sensor to measure ocean surface wind vectors, aiding in weather forecasting and cyclone detection. The satellite operates in a polar sun-synchronous orbit, providing global coverage with frequent revisits. EOS-06 supports meteorological models, disaster management, and climate research. It enhances India’s ability to monitor extreme weather events, contributing to early warnings and disaster preparedness, especially in cyclone-prone regions like the Bay of Bengal.

Why in news?

EOS-06 is currently tracking Cyclonic Storm Dana, providing critical data for early warning and disaster response in eastern India.

Full Self-Driving (FSD) Technology

Teslas Full Self-Driving (FSD) is an advanced driver-assistance system designed to enable cars to drive autonomously but is officially rated at Level 2 autonomy, meaning it requires continuous driver supervision. It combines cameras, radar, and neural networks to navigate roads. Despite marketing claims, FSD cannot operate without human intervention. The system improves through massive data collection, relying on billions of real-world miles driven. Tesla frequently updates FSD software to fix bugs and improve safety. It has been linked to several accidents, including a fatal motorcycle crash in 2024, raising regulatory concerns and recalls.

Why in news?

Teslas FSD system is under intense regulatory scrutiny after multiple accidents, including a fatality, as the company seeks approval for unsupervised autonomous driving in key states like California and Texas.

Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator (GESDA)

The Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator (GESDA) was established in 2019 in Geneva to integrate scientific innovation with diplomatic efforts. It focuses on emerging technologies like quantum science and artificial intelligence. GESDA facilitates collaboration among scientists, diplomats, and policymakers globally through platforms such as the Open Quantum Institute. It partners with major institutions including CERN to promote responsible innovation and equitable technology access. Annual summits align scientific progress with sustainable development goals and international cooperation frameworks, aiming to anticipate and mitigate future global challenges.

Why in news?

GESDA launched the Open Quantum Institute in 2024 to advance quantum computing technologies aligned with UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Glucose-Sensitive Insulin

Glucose-sensitive insulin is a modified insulin molecule designed to adjust its activity based on ambient blood glucose levels. Unlike traditional insulin, which requires external monitoring, this insulin contains chemical groups that change conformation or binding affinity in response to glucose concentration. This allows it to release insulin only when blood sugar rises above a certain threshold, reducing the risk of hypoglycemia. The molecules design often involves glucose-binding moieties such as phenylboronic acid derivatives. Research focuses on tuning sensitivity and response speed to mimic natural pancreatic beta-cell function. It represents a shift from device-dependent to molecule-intrinsic glucose regulation.

Why in news?

The development of NNC2215 marks progress in glucose-sensitive insulin, a next-generation therapy that integrates glucose sensing directly into the insulin molecule, potentially transforming diabetes management.

Glucosides

Glucosides are chemical compounds where glucose is covalently bound to another molecule via a glycosidic bond. They occur naturally in plants and microorganisms and influence the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of many substances. Glucosides can be classified based on the aglycone group attached, such as alkaloid or flavonoid glucosides. Their selective binding properties allow them to act as molecular switches in biochemical processes. Some glucosides are used in traditional medicine, while others serve as precursors to pharmacologically active compounds. Their hydrolysis releases glucose and the aglycone, which may have distinct biological effects.

Why in news?

Glucosides are key to the function of NNC2215 insulin, where they mimic glucose and regulate insulin activation by binding and releasing based on blood sugar levels.

Glymphatic System

The glymphatic system is a brain-wide waste clearance network that uses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to flush out toxins such as beta-amyloid through perivascular channels. It was first identified in mice around 2013. This system functions mainly during sleep, when CSF flow increases, enhancing waste removal. The movement of CSF is driven by the pulsing of blood vessels. Unlike the body’s lymphatic system, the glymphatic system is unique to the brain. Its discovery has implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Human presence was confirmed via advanced MRI with tracer substances.

Why in news?

Researchers at Oregon Health & Science University visualized the glymphatic system in living humans using MRI and tracer injections, confirming animal study results and linking brain waste clearance to sleep and dementia risk.

Gonadotropins

Gonadotropins are pituitary hormones primarily comprising luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). They regulate the function of gonads in both males and females by stimulating production of sex steroids such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. Gonadotropins also influence non-reproductive tissues, affecting muscle mass, bone density, and tendon strength. In dogs, disruption of gonadotropin pathways can cause systemic effects including metabolic changes and increased susceptibility to joint diseases. These hormones follow a feedback loop with the hypothalamus and gonads, modulating reproductive cycles and secondary sexual characteristics.

Why in news?

The neutering vaccine blocks gonadotropin hormones to halt sexual hormone production, offering a non-surgical sterilization method for dogs.

Graphene in Energy Storage

Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, known for exceptional electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and large surface area. In energy storage, graphene enhances electrode performance by providing high surface area and efficient electron pathways. It is used in supercapacitors and batteries to improve charge capacity and flexibility. Graphene-based electrodes enable flexible, bendable energy storage devices, suitable for wearable electronics. Production methods include chemical vapor deposition and exfoliation. Graphenes integration into EDLCs aims to overcome traditional supercapacitors limitations in energy density.

Why in news?

Research on graphene-based flexible supercapacitors demonstrates improved EDLC performance, crucial for next-generation wearable and low-power electronic devices.

GRASSROOT (Gravity Stent-Retriever System for Reperfusion of Large Vessel Occlusion Stroke Trial)

The GRASSROOT trial is a clinical study initiated in India on August 15, 2024, involving 16 hospitals including AIIMS New Delhi and JIPMER Pondicherry. It evaluates a next-generation stent-retriever device designed to treat large vessel occlusion strokes by mechanically removing clots. The device is tailored to the unique clot composition found in the Indian population, aiming to improve reperfusion success rates. The trial focuses on both safety and efficacy and intends to make mechanical thrombectomy more accessible and affordable across India, where stroke treatment options are limited.

Why in news?

The GRASSROOT trial was launched to test a new stent-retriever device for stroke patients in India, addressing unique clot characteristics and improving stroke intervention accessibility and affordability nationwide.

Guwahati Data Center

The Guwahati data center is a strategic IT infrastructure facility located in northeastern India. It serves northern and central India by providing cloud, hosting, and colocation services. The center supports government and private sector clients, enhancing regional digital connectivity. It is designed with scalable architecture, currently expanding from 200 to 400 racks. The center incorporates advanced security, redundant power supplies, and efficient cooling systems. Its location leverages proximity to emerging markets and growing internet penetration in the region. It plays a critical role in India’s digital infrastructure expansion under national initiatives.

Why in news?

The Guwahati data center project is increasing capacity to 400 racks, doubling its equipment hosting capability to meet rising demand.

Hub Neurons

Hub neurons are a class of specialized nerve cells identified primarily in the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) brain. They are characterized by their large size and high degree of interconnectedness compared to typical neurons. These neurons form dense networks that connect multiple brain regions, acting as relay points to enhance rapid communication and coordination of complex behaviors. Hub neurons contribute to the efficiency of neural processing by facilitating faster information flow across different brain areas. Their presence suggests a conserved mechanism for managing complex tasks in small brains and possibly in larger mammalian brains.

Why in news?

Scientists recently identified a large group of hub neurons in the adult fruit fly brain, denoting their role in speeding up information flow and advancing understanding of brain connectivity and function.

Hypernatremia

Hypernatremia is defined by a serum sodium concentration exceeding 145 mmol/L. It results primarily from a relative water deficit compared to sodium, often due to dehydration. Symptoms range from mild confusion to severe neurological impairment, including seizures and brain hemorrhage caused by cellular dehydration and shrinkage. The condition disrupts cellular function and can lead to encephalopathy. Treatment requires gradual rehydration with hypotonic fluids to prevent cerebral edema from rapid sodium shifts. It predominantly affects the elderly and those with impaired thirst or limited water access. Monitoring sodium levels is essential in managing hypernatremia cases.

Why in news?

Hypernatremia was brought into light following a deadly heat exposure incident at Chennais airshow, where affected individuals developed brain hemorrhages and encephalopathy due to this condition.

IndiaAI

IndiaAI is a national platform and initiative aimed at accelerating artificial intelligence development and adoption across India. It connects government bodies, academia, startups, and industry stakeholders to encourage collaboration and innovation in AI. IndiaAI organizes events, workshops, and policy discussions to promote AI literacy and ecosystem growth. It supports the creation of AI solutions addressing Indian societal and economic challenges. The platform emphasizes ethical AI use and inclusive development, ensuring benefits reach diverse sectors. IndiaAI also facilitates partnerships for research and commercialization of AI technologies in India.

Why in news?

IndiaAI is one of the key partners in establishing the Center for Generative AI, Srijan, to advance open science and AI skill-building in India.

Intelsat 33e

Intelsat 33e is a communications satellite launched in 2016, part of the Intelsat EpicNG series designed for high-throughput data transmission. It operates in geostationary orbit at 60° East longitude, providing broadband and media services primarily to Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The satellite experienced breakup event in 2024, generating debris that raised concerns about orbital safety. The fragmentation was reportedly caused by an internal anomaly, not collision. Intelsat 33e’s debris has been tracked closely to prevent collision with other satellites, underscoring risks associated with aging spacecraft in crowded geostationary orbit.

Why in news?

The breakup of Intelsat 33e has intensified discussions on space debris liability and the application of the 1972 Liability Convention amid rising orbital congestion.

Interferometric Radio Telescope Arrays

Interferometric arrays combine signals from multiple radio telescopes to simulate a much larger aperture, improving angular resolution and sensitivity. Unlike single-dish telescopes, arrays use precise timing and signal processing to correlate data, enabling detailed imaging of distant cosmic sources. The technique allows detection of weaker signals and finer spatial details. Arrays can be fixed or moveable; moveable antennas, like those planned for FAST Core Array, allow flexible baseline configurations. This method is widely used in projects such as the Very Large Array (VLA) and the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA).

Why in news?

The FAST Core Array will use interferometric techniques with 24 new moveable telescopes to enhance the original FAST telescopes capabilities.

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

The JWST is a space-based infrared observatory launched in 2021, designed to study the universes earliest galaxies, stars, and planetary systems. It features a 6.5-meter segmented primary mirror and instruments sensitive to infrared wavelengths from 0.6 to 28 microns. JWST operates near the Earth-Sun L2 point, providing stable thermal conditions. It can observe objects obscured by dust in optical light and has advanced spectroscopic capabilities. JWST’s design allows it to look further back in time than Hubble, revealing phenomena from the first few hundred million years after the Big Bang.

Why in news?

JWSTs observations are key to the CEERS Survey, enabling detection of faint, distant galaxies previously unobservable.

Kinetic Impactor Technique

The kinetic impactor technique involves deliberately crashing a spacecraft into an asteroid to change its trajectory. This method is tested to prevent potential future asteroid impacts on Earth. The technique depends on the momentum transfer from the spacecraft to the asteroid, which can be affected by the asteroids composition, density, and surface properties. DART was the first mission to demonstrate this technique by impacting Dimorphos. Hera will measure the crater size, orbit changes, and physical effects to refine models of how kinetic impactors can effectively alter asteroid paths.

Why in news?

The kinetic impactor technique is being studied through ESAs Hera mission in October 2024 following NASAs DART impact to improve planetary defense capabilities.

Luciferase Enzyme

Luciferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin, producing light in bioluminescent organisms like dinoflagellates. It is highly specific to the type of luciferin present in the organism. In dinoflagellates, luciferase activity is regulated by pH changes within specialized organelles called scintillons. The enzyme’s structure varies among species, influencing the color and intensity of emitted light. Luciferase has practical applications in biotechnology, including as a reporter gene in molecular biology and in biosensors. Its bioluminescent reaction is energy-efficient, producing light without heat.

Why in news?

Luciferase enzymes were central to the bioluminescent phenomenon observed in dinoflagellates during the October 2024 coastal event near Chennai.

LUNA Analog Facility

The LUNA Analog Facility is a specialized Earth-based training center designed to simulate lunar surface conditions for astronaut preparation. It focuses on replicating the moons environment, including terrain and gravity, to test equipment and mobility. Traditional methods like underwater training or parabolic flights are less practical here, making gravity offload systems essential. The facility supports research into lunar exploration techniques and human factors in reduced gravity. It serves as a testbed for prototype technologies and mission rehearsals ahead of actual moon landings planned in the 2020s and 2030s.

Why in news?

The LUNA Analog Facility is in the spotlight due to ongoing efforts in 2024 to integrate a gravity offload system to improve lunar gravity simulation for astronaut training.

LVM-3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3)

LVM-3, also known as GSLV Mk III, is India’s heaviest and most powerful launch vehicle developed by ISRO. It can carry payloads of up to 4 tons to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) and about 10 tons to low Earth orbit (LEO). The rocket has three stages – two solid strap-on boosters, a liquid core stage, and a cryogenic upper stage. It was first successfully launched in 2017 and is designed for heavy satellite launches and interplanetary missions. LVM-3 is a key asset for Indias ambitions in space exploration and commercial satellite deployment.

Why in news?

The Venus Orbiter Mission will be launched aboard the LVM-3 rocket, marking use of this vehicle for interplanetary exploration.

MACE Observatory

The MACE (Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment) Observatory is situated within the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve and is one of the worlds highest gamma-ray telescopes. It uses Cherenkov radiation to detect very high-energy cosmic gamma rays, contributing to astrophysics and particle physics. The observatory operates in collaboration with Indian and international scientific bodies. Its location benefits from low atmospheric disturbance and minimal light pollution, essential for detecting faint cosmic signals. MACE plays important role in studying cosmic phenomena like supernova remnants and active galactic nuclei.

Why in news?

The MACE Observatory was recently inaugurated, drawing focus to Ladakhs role in advanced astronomical research and dark sky preservation.

MACE Telescope

The Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment (MACE) telescope is located at Hanle, at an altitude of 4,270 meters. It is one of the highest and largest Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes in the world, designed to observe gamma rays in the energy range of 20 GeV to 5 TeV. MACE uses a 21-meter diameter mirror to collect Cherenkov light from air showers. Its location at high altitude reduces atmospheric absorption and improves sensitivity. The telescope contributes to gamma-ray astronomy by studying cosmic accelerators such as black holes and gamma-ray bursts, helping to map the high-energy universe.

Why in news?

MACE telescope has recently begun operations, providing new data on high-energy cosmic gamma rays through Cherenkov radiation detection.

Mach Number

The Mach number is a dimensionless unit representing the ratio of an object’s speed to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium. Mach 1 equals the speed of sound (~343 m/s at sea level). Speeds above Mach 5 are classified as hypersonic. The speed of sound varies with altitude, temperature, and atmospheric conditions. The concept was named after physicist Ernst Mach. Supersonic speeds (Mach 1 to Mach 5) differ from hypersonic speeds (above Mach 5) by the onset of new aerodynamic phenomena such as dissociation of air molecules and extreme thermal effects.

Why in news?

Mach number is fundamental to understanding the velocity classification of Irans hypersonic cruise missiles, which exceed Mach 5, emphasizing their advanced speed and maneuvering capabilities.

Mass Spectrometer

A mass spectrometer is a scientific instrument used to measure the masses and relative concentrations of atoms and molecules in a sample. It ionizes chemical compounds to generate charged particles and separates them based on their mass-to-charge ratio. In space missions, mass spectrometers analyze surface and atmospheric particles to determine composition and detect trace elements or organic molecules. The instrument can identify isotopes, helping understand geological and chemical processes. Europa Clippers mass spectrometer will analyze Europas thin atmosphere and plume material to detect compounds that may indicate biological activity or ocean chemistry beneath the ice.

Why in news?

Europa Clipper carries a mass spectrometer among its nine instruments to study Europas surface and atmosphere composition during flybys in 2024.

Melanocyte Repigmentation

Melanocyte repigmentation refers to the restoration of pigment-producing cells in the skin, essential in conditions like vitiligo. It involves the migration, proliferation, and differentiation of melanocyte stem cells from hair follicles or surrounding skin. Immune modulation is critical, as autoimmune destruction of melanocytes causes depigmentation. Treatments aim to reduce immune attack and stimulate melanocyte activity. Repigmentation patterns include perifollicular, marginal, and diffuse types. The process can be spontaneous or induced by therapies such as phototherapy, corticosteroids, or calcineurin inhibitors. Repigmentation success depends on disease stability, duration, and treatment adherence.

Why in news?

Melanocyte repigmentation is a therapeutic goal in vitiligo management, with calcineurin inhibitors playing a role in modulating immune responses to aid this process.

Metadata in Digital Credentials

Metadata in digital credentials refers to the embedded data within badges or certificates that provides detailed information about the credential. This includes issuer identity, recipient name, date of issue, expiration, skill description, and evidence links. Metadata ensures verifiability and trustworthiness of digital badges by allowing third parties to authenticate claims without contacting the issuer directly. It supports interoperability across platforms and facilitates automated recognition by HR systems. Metadata standards like the Open Badges specification define the structure and content required for consistent metadata implementation in digital credentials.

Why in news?

Metadata embedded in digital badges underpins their reliability and authenticity, making them effective tools for verifying AI-related skills and supporting workforce development initiatives.

Methanol as a Denaturant

Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, is a common additive in denatured spirit due to its high toxicity. It is colorless, volatile, and flammable, with a chemical formula CH3OH. Methanol ingestion can cause blindness, organ failure, or death. Its use as a denaturant exploits these toxic effects to deter human consumption. Methanol is metabolized in the liver to formaldehyde and formic acid, which cause metabolic acidosis and neurotoxicity. Despite its dangers, methanol is widely used industrially in antifreeze, solvents, and fuel production. Its presence in denatured spirit complicates illicit alcohol purification efforts.

Why in news?

Methanol’s role as a toxic additive in denatured spirit is central to health hazards from illicit liquor made by purifying denatured alcohol.

Microgravity-Induced Osteopenia

Microgravity-induced osteopenia refers to the reduction in bone mineral density caused by prolonged exposure to microgravity environments, such as on the International Space Station. It mimics osteoporosis but progresses faster, with losses up to 1.5% per month in astronauts. The condition primarily affects weight-bearing bones like the spine, hips, and femurs due to lack of mechanical stress. Recovery post-mission can take years and may never fully restore pre-flight bone strength. Countermeasures include resistance training and nutritional supplements like vitamin D and calcium. This condition limits mission duration and poses a risk for fractures during and after spaceflight.

Why in news?

Sunita Williams mission brought into light the severity of microgravity-induced osteopenia, emphasizing the need for improved countermeasures on long-duration spaceflights.

microRNAs (miRNAs)

MicroRNAs are small, non-coding RNA molecules, typically 20-24 nucleotides long, that regulate gene expression by binding to complementary sequences on target messenger RNAs (mRNAs), causing their degradation or inhibiting translation. They were first discovered in the early 1990s in C. elegans. miRNAs are conserved across multicellular organisms, playing critical roles in development, cell differentiation, and disease processes such as cancer. Unlike other RNA types, miRNAs do not code for proteins but act as post-transcriptional regulators. Their biogenesis involves Drosha and Dicer enzymes, and they function within the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).

Why in news?

Gary Ruvkuns Nobel Prize in 2024 recognized his co-discovery of microRNAs and their role in gene regulation across species.

Microsatellite Loci

Microsatellite loci are short, repetitive sequences of DNA, typically 1-6 base pairs long, repeated multiple times in tandem. They are highly polymorphic, meaning the number of repeats varies greatly between individuals, making them ideal for genetic fingerprinting. These loci are found in both coding and non-coding regions of the genome and mutate at relatively high rates. Microsatellites are widely used in population genetics, forensics, and conservation biology to assess genetic diversity, relatedness, and individual identification. They were first discovered in the 1980s and have since become essential molecular markers in wildlife studies.

Why in news?

Microsatellite loci were crucial in the DNA analysis process during Indias 2022-23 elephant census, enabling genetic identification of individual elephants for population estimates.

Microscale Connectome Mapping

Microscale connectome mapping focuses on individual synapses and neurons, revealing the smallest neural connections in the brain. This scale requires advanced imaging techniques like electron microscopy to visualize synaptic structures. Microscale maps provide detailed information about how neurons communicate and form circuits. These maps are essential for understanding synaptic plasticity, the basis of learning and memory. Microscale connectomes are more challenging to complete due to the vast number of neurons and synapses in larger brains. They complement macroscale maps by linking structural details to functional brain regions.

Why in news?

Microscale mapping techniques are integral to the new fruit fly connectome, enabling unprecedented detail in neural wiring diagrams.

Microwave Links in 5G Backhaul

Microwave links transmit data wirelessly between 5G cell sites and the core network using radio waves in the microwave frequency spectrum. They provide a cost-effective and flexible terrestrial backhaul solution, especially in areas where fiber deployment is challenging. Microwave backhaul can cover distances up to tens of kilometers with line-of-sight requirements. It supports high data rates but is sensitive to weather conditions like rain fade. Microwave links are widely used in urban and suburban 5G networks due to their rapid deployment and scalability compared to fiber optics.

Why in news?

Microwave backhaul is relevant as an alternative to fiber and satellite in expanding 5G networks, influencing infrastructure investment and network design strategies.

mRNA Vaccine for C. difficile

mRNA vaccines use synthetic messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce target antigens, triggering immune responses. An mRNA vaccine for C. difficile aims to generate immunity against its toxins, reducing infection and recurrence rates. This approach differs from traditional vaccines by enabling rapid development and adaptability. Clinical trials are ongoing to assess safety and efficacy. The vaccine targets the TcdA and TcdB toxins specifically. If successful, it could decrease reliance on antibiotics and FMT, lowering healthcare burdens from recurrent infections. Regulatory approval timelines are still pending.

Why in news?

New mRNA vaccines for C. difficile infections are in development, potentially transforming prevention and reducing the need for fecal microbiota transplants.

Multimodal Foundation Models

Multimodal foundation models are AI systems trained on multiple types of data such as text, images, audio, and video, enabling them to understand and generate content across different modalities. These models combine information from diverse sources to improve accuracy and contextual understanding. In India, multimodal models are vital for handling the country’s linguistic and cultural diversity. They require large-scale, diverse datasets and advanced architectures to process heterogeneous inputs. Open-source multimodal models facilitate research and application development in areas like language translation, image captioning, and conversational AI.

Why in news?

BharatGens focus on multimodal foundation models represents step in developing AI that can process varied data types relevant to Indias multilingual context.

Mycobacteriophages

Mycobacteriophages are a subgroup of bacteriophages that infect bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium, which includes species causing tuberculosis and leprosy. They vary widely in genome size and morphology, with some having genomes over 150,000 base pairs. Mycobacteriophages are used in molecular biology to study mycobacterial genetics and in phage therapy research. They can enter either a lytic cycle, destroying the host, or a lysogenic cycle, integrating into the host genome. Their diversity is extensive, with over 10,000 isolated and sequenced, making them a valuable resource for understanding bacterial evolution and developing new treatments.

Why in news?

The discovery of numerous bacteriophages on everyday items includes many mycobacteriophages, denoting their potential in addressing antibiotic resistance in mycobacterial infections.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Immune Evasion via Epigenetic Erasure

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) can erase epigenetic memory in macrophages, preventing them from recognizing prior infections. This erasure involves interference with DNA methylation and histone modification patterns, hindering gene expression linked to immune activation. By disrupting these epigenetic marks, Mtb weakens the hosts immune defense, facilitating its survival and persistence within macrophages. This mechanism represents a novel immune evasion strategy distinct from classical antigenic variation or immune suppression. The process is under active investigation for potential therapeutic targeting to boost immunity against tuberculosis.

Why in news?

Studies reveal Mtbs ability to erase macrophage epigenetic memory, undermining immune defense and enabling chronic tuberculosis infection.

Nano-Micro-Sera

Nano-Micro-Sera are therapeutic agents composed of nanoscale and microscale particles designed for controlled drug delivery. These particles can penetrate tissues effectively and release medication locally over time, reducing systemic side effects. They are often integrated into biomaterials like autologous fibrin glue to enhance healing and prevent infection or tumor regrowth. Their small size allows for interaction at the cellular level, improving drug uptake and therapeutic outcomes. Nano-Micro-Sera can be engineered to carry various drugs, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or anticancer compounds, making them versatile in post-surgical applications.

Why in news?

Nano-Micro-Sera are being used in combination with autologous fibrin glue to create hybrid implants that improve post-surgical drug delivery and prevent cancer recurrence.

National Cybercrime Threat Analytics Unit

The National Cybercrime Threat Analytics Unit is one of the seven components of I4C, responsible for analyzing cybercrime data trends in India. It uses advanced analytics and threat intelligence to identify emerging cyber threats and patterns. The unit supports law enforcement agencies by providing actionable insights and risk assessments. It also collaborates with global cybersecurity organizations to share intelligence. Its work helps preempt cyberattacks and develop strategies for prevention and response. The unit plays a vital role in understanding complex cybercrime phenomena like phishing, malware campaigns, and online fraud.

Why in news?

The unit contributed to the analysis and publication of data on online scams in India during the first quarter of 2024, aiding in national cybercrime response efforts.

National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS)

The NM-ICPS is a government initiative launched in 2018 to encourage research and development in cyber-physical systems (CPS) integrating computing, networking, and physical processes. It supports projects across robotics, AI, IoT, and embedded systems, aiming to strengthen India’s technology ecosystem. The mission involves multiple academic and research institutions, including IITs and IISc, with funding and infrastructure support. It emphasizes interdisciplinary collaboration and innovation in sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and smart cities. NM-ICPS also promotes skill development and industry partnerships to accelerate technology adoption nationwide.

Why in news?

NM-ICPS is the funding and organizational framework behind BharatGen, denoting government efforts to advance interdisciplinary AI and cyber-physical research in India.

National Regulatory Authority (NRA) Re-benchmarking

NRA re-benchmarking is a process conducted by the WHO to evaluate and certify a country’s vaccine regulatory system against global standards. It involves assessing regulatory functions like licensing, surveillance, quality control, and pharmacovigilance. The exercise ensures that the NRA maintains compliance with international best practices for vaccine safety and efficacy. Re-benchmarking occurs periodically to incorporate updates in regulations and technologies. It impacts vaccine approval timelines and public health policies. Countries with WHO-benchmarked NRAs are recognized for their ability to maintain high-quality vaccine regulation and facilitate global vaccine distribution.

Why in news?

India underwent the WHOs NRA re-benchmarking exercise, which included a review of its AEFI structures, to validate its vaccine regulatory capabilities.

Neologisms in Psychiatry

Neologisms are newly coined words or expressions often created unintentionally by patients with psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia. These invented words typically have meaning only to the speaker and are a hallmark of formal thought disorder. Neologisms can arise from combining existing words, altering sounds, or creating entirely novel terms. They reflect disrupted semantic processing and language production. Neologisms are rare in everyday speech and are used clinically to assess thought disorganization severity. Their presence is strongly associated with more severe forms of psychosis and correlates with abnormalities in brain regions responsible for language, such as the left temporal lobe.

Why in news?

Neologisms are discussed as a component of formal thought disorder, underscoring their role in schizophrenia symptomatology and clinical evaluation.

Neotype Designation in Zoological Taxonomy

A neotype is a specimen selected to serve as the type specimen when the original holotype or syntypes are lost, destroyed, or deemed inadequate. It must be clearly designated, described, and justified in a published work to maintain nomenclatural stability. The neotype must match the original description and come from the original or nearby locality. This process helps resolve taxonomic confusion, especially for species described long ago with missing or damaged types. Neotype designation is regulated by the ICZN and is a critical tool in modern taxonomy to ensure consistent species identification.

Why in news?

Neotype designation was applied to the king cobra species to clarify its classification after loss of original type specimens.

Neuron Type Classification

Neuron type classification involves categorizing neurons based on morphology, connectivity, and function. In the fruit fly brain, this process distinguishes over 8,000 distinct neuron types. Classification helps map neural circuits and understand how brain regions interact. Techniques include image analysis, computational modeling, and pattern recognition. Accurate classification is essential for neuroscience research, aiding in the study of behavior, memory, and disease mechanisms. This task is complex due to the diversity and similarity among neurons, making crowd-sourcing and machine learning valuable tools. Classification databases serve as references for comparative studies across species.

Why in news?

Citizen scientists contributed to the classification of neuron types in the fruit fly brain, enabling faster data analysis and enhancing the understanding of neural networks.

Neuronal Connectome

A neuronal connectome is a comprehensive map of neural connections within an organism’s nervous system. For Drosophila melanogaster, the adult brain connectome includes approximately 50 million synaptic connections among around 139,000 neurons. Mapping the connectome helps researchers understand how neural circuits underlie behavior and cognition. The Drosophila connectome was completed using advanced imaging and computational techniques, providing vital information about neural communication, learning, and memory mechanisms. It is one of the most detailed connectomes available for any organism, bridging gaps between genetics, neurobiology, and behavior.

Why in news?

The adult Drosophila melanogaster brain connectome was fully mapped for the first time, revealing intricate neural wiring and advancing the study of brain function and behavior in a model organism.

Neutering Vaccine

The neutering vaccine is a biological agent designed to induce temporary infertility in animals by inhibiting gonadotropin release. Unlike surgical castration, it is reversible and less invasive. The vaccine works by stimulating the production of antibodies against gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), preventing it from triggering the pituitary gland. This results in a drop in LH and FSH levels, ceasing sex hormone production and fertility. It is primarily used in canine population control and wildlife management. The vaccines effects typically last several months to a year, depending on the formulation and species treated.

Why in news?

The neutering vaccines development and deployment mark advancement in humane and reversible dog sterilization techniques.

NHS Digital

NHS Digital is the national information and technology partner to the health and care system in England, established in 2016, succeeding the HSCIC. It manages the collection, storage, and analysis of health data, enabling digital transformation of NHS services. NHS Digital oversees critical datasets such as hospital admissions, disease registries, and patient records, supporting research, policy, and clinical decision-making. It also develops digital tools for healthcare providers and patients. NHS Digital plays a central role in the UKs health data infrastructure, promoting data security and interoperability across the National Health Service.

Why in news?

NHS Digital continues the data collection and reporting functions of the HSCIC, including monitoring trends like the rise in scurvy hospital admissions.

NNC2215

NNC2215 is an experimental glucose-sensitive insulin candidate developed by Novo Nordisk. It incorporates molecular modifications that enable automatic insulin release in response to rising glucose levels without external sensors or pumps. Preclinical studies showed improved glucose control and reduced hypoglycemia risk. NNC2215 uses a proprietary glucose-responsive mechanism that alters insulins receptor binding affinity depending on glucose concentration. It is among the first insulin analogs to integrate glucose sensing at the molecular level rather than relying on mechanical devices. Clinical trials are ongoing to assess safety, efficacy, and optimal dosing parameters.

Why in news?

NNC2215 is in advanced development stages as a pioneering glucose-sensitive insulin formulation, illustrating breakthrough in automated diabetes treatment.

NNC2215 Insulin

NNC2215 is a novel insulin analog designed to respond dynamically to blood glucose levels. It incorporates a glucoside molecule that binds to insulins ring structure, maintaining the hormone in an inactive state when glucose is low. Upon glucose increase, glucose molecules displace the glucoside, triggering insulin activation. This mechanism mimics natural insulin regulation and aims to reduce hypoglycemia risk. NNC2215 represents a new class of glucose-sensitive drugs, combining biochemical engineering with molecular recognition. It is developed to improve diabetes management by providing an “on-and-off” insulin switch responding directly to glucose fluctuations.

Why in news?

NNC2215 is brought into light for its innovative glucose-responsive insulin activation mechanism, potentially transforming diabetes treatment.

Non-Enzymatic Glycation

Non-enzymatic glycation is a chemical reaction where reducing sugars bond covalently to proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids without enzymatic catalysis. This process produces early glycation products like Schiff bases and Amadori products, which can further react to form AGEs. It differs from enzymatic glycosylation, which is tightly regulated and essential for normal cellular function. Non-enzymatic glycation occurs spontaneously and accelerates under hyperglycemic conditions, oxidative stress, and elevated temperatures. It contributes to molecular aging and cellular dysfunction by modifying biomolecules’ structure and function, impacting diseases such as diabetes and neurodegeneration.

Why in news?

The Indian clinical trial brought into light the role of non-enzymatic glycation in diabetes progression, emphasizing dietary control of glycation precursors to reduce AGE formation and improve metabolic health.

Numerical Weather Prediction Models in India

Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models use mathematical equations to simulate atmospheric processes and predict weather. The India Meteorological Department pioneered the adaptation of NWP in India during the late 20th century, incorporating global and regional atmospheric data. These models run on supercomputers and assimilate satellite, radar, and surface observations. Indian NWP models have been customized to address monsoon variability and tropical cyclones. They support forecasts from hours to weeks ahead. NWP advancements have improved flood warnings and agricultural advisories. The models are continuously refined through collaborations with international meteorological research centers.

Why in news?

IMDs recent upgrades to NWP models have enhanced hyperlocal forecasting capabilities, integral to the new gram panchayat-level weather forecasting system launched in October 2024.

OASIS Consortium

The OASIS Consortium (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) is a global nonprofit consortium that drives the development and adoption of open standards for information exchange. Founded in 1993, OASIS has developed standards in areas like cybersecurity, cloud computing, and emergency management. It oversees the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) standard and many others such as SAML (Security Assertion Markup Language). OASIS operates through member-driven technical committees and encourages collaboration between industry, government, and academia. Its standards are widely adopted internationally for interoperability and secure data exchange.

Why in news?

OASIS was mentioned in relation to the CAP standard during the 2024 Asia-Pacific conference promoting disaster alert interoperability.

One-Time Programmable Microchip in Indian EVMs

Indian Electronic Voting Machines use a one-time programmable (OTP) microchip that prevents reprogramming after manufacturing. This feature enhances security by ensuring the software controlling vote recording cannot be altered once deployed. Indian EVMs operate offline and are battery-powered, minimizing risks from network-based cyber-attacks. They are standalone devices without internet connectivity, designed to function in remote areas. The OTP microchip is a key differentiator from many US DRE machines, which may rely on rewritable memory. This design aims to reduce fraud and tampering during elections.

Why in news?

The unique OTP microchip feature of Indian EVMs is discussed amid security concerns in both Indian and US elections, contrasting with vulnerabilities found in some other electronic voting systems.

Open Quantum Institute (OQI)

The Open Quantum Institute (OQI) was initiated by GESDA in 2024 as a global collaborative platform for quantum computing research and innovation. It encourages open dialogue among scientists, diplomats, and policymakers to ensure quantum advancements support equitable and sustainable development. OQI aims to accelerate breakthroughs in quantum technologies while addressing ethical, social, and geopolitical implications. It operates with a focus on transparency and inclusivity, promoting international cooperation to leverage quantum science for solving complex global problems, especially those outlined in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Why in news?

OQI began operations in 2024 as part of GESDA’s efforts to integrate quantum computing with global policy and sustainable development goals.

OpenSAFELY

OpenSAFELY is a secure analytics platform designed for large-scale analysis of electronic health records in the UKs NHS. It enables researchers to access anonymized patient data without transferring raw data outside secure environments, reducing privacy risks. Developed during the COVID-19 pandemic, it supports rapid, transparent health research by allowing open sharing of code and methods. The platform integrates expertise from health informatics and e-commerce IT systems to handle massive datasets efficiently. OpenSAFELY has been used for studies on COVID-19 outcomes, vaccine effectiveness, and health inequalities. It operates under strict governance and ethical oversight.

Why in news?

OpenSAFELY is in focus as Ben Goldacres team launched it to facilitate secure, transparent NHS data research, particularly relevant for ongoing public health studies.

Orphan Drugs

Orphan drugs are pharmaceutical agents developed specifically to treat rare diseases, which affect a small percentage of the population. Due to limited market demand, these drugs often have high development costs and limited commercial incentives. Governments worldwide, including India, provide incentives such as tax credits, grants, and exclusivity periods to encourage orphan drug development. These drugs can be very expensive and are often included in specialized programs like those at CoEs. Orphan drugs require strict regulatory approval and may be subject to special pricing and reimbursement policies to improve patient access.

Why in news?

The Delhi High Courts directions emphasize improving access to costly orphan drugs through CoEs, denoting challenges in drug availability for rare disease patients.

P-glycoprotein

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is an ATP-dependent efflux transporter protein expressed in the blood-brain barrier endothelial cells. It actively pumps many foreign substances, including drugs and toxins, out of brain tissue back into the bloodstream, reducing their accumulation in the central nervous system. P-gp is encoded by the ABCB1 gene and belongs to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family. It contributes to multidrug resistance in cancer and limits drug penetration into the brain. P-gp function can be modulated by genetic polymorphisms, affecting drug efficacy and toxicity. It is also found in other tissues like the intestines, liver, and kidneys.

Why in news?

P-glycoprotein is brought into light for its role in limiting drug entry into the brain, posing challenges for treating brain tuberculosis with conventional drugs.

P-hacking

P-hacking refers to manipulating data analysis until statistically results (p-values below 0.05) are found, often by selectively reporting or reanalyzing data. This practice can produce misleading or false-positive findings, undermining scientific validity. It is common in fields with large datasets and multiple testing opportunities, such as medical research and social sciences. Awareness of p-hacking has led to calls for pre-registration of studies, open data, and transparent methodologies to improve reproducibility. Detecting p-hacking involves examining study protocols, statistical methods, and inconsistencies between reported and actual analyses. It is a key concern in evidence-based medicine.

Why in news?

Ben Goldacre emphasizes combating p-hacking through open code sharing and transparency in medical data research, as part of his work with OpenSAFELY and the Bennett Institute.

Pancharatnam Phase

The Pancharatnam phase is a special case of the Berry phase discovered by Indian physicist S. Pancharatnam in the 1950s. It arises in the context of polarized light waves rather than quantum particles, describing the phase difference when light polarization states undergo cyclic changes. Pancharatnam’s work laid the foundation for the geometric phase concept before Berry’s generalization. This phase is observed in interference patterns of polarized beams and is crucial in modern optics, quantum computing, and photonics, linking classical wave phenomena with quantum geometric phases.

Why in news?

Pancharatnam’s early discovery is foundational to recent experiments measuring geometric phases in quantum spin systems, such as those involving FND spin qubits.

Pantographic Doors

Pantographic doors use a system of parallel arms to open and close, allowing the door to fold and slide compactly. This design reduces the space needed for door operation compared to traditional bus doors. Pantographic doors provide smoother, quieter operation and require less maintenance due to fewer moving parts exposed to external elements. They enhance passenger safety by reducing the risk of doors getting stuck or damaged. These doors are commonly used in modern buses and trains where space efficiency and operational reliability are critical.

Why in news?

The new Airavat Club Class 2.0 buses introduced by KSRTC feature pantographic doors, improving maintenance ease and passenger safety.

Pappanamcode

Pappanamcode is a locality in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, known for hosting several government and scientific institutions, including CSIR-NIIST. It has developed as an educational and research hub with a focus on science and technology. The area benefits from proximity to Keralas capital city infrastructure and has a growing population of researchers and students. It is strategically important for integrating traditional knowledge systems with modern research due to Keralas rich heritage in Ayurveda and natural sciences. Pappanamcode also supports industrial pilot plants and technology transfer centers.

Why in news?

Pappanamcode is brought into light as the location of CSIR-NIISTs new Centres of Excellence in Ayurveda and sustainable chemical research.

Parabolic Flights

Parabolic flights involve an aircraft flying in a series of steep climbs and descents to create short periods of microgravity, usually lasting 20-30 seconds. During the parabolic arc, passengers experience weightlessness or reduced gravity similar to lunar or Martian conditions. These flights are used for astronaut training, scientific experiments, and equipment testing. They are costly and provide only brief intervals of altered gravity, limiting their effectiveness for extended movement practice. Parabolic flights have been used since the 1950s and remain a standard method for microgravity simulation despite newer alternatives like gravity offload systems.

Why in news?

Parabolic flights are mentioned as a traditional but impractical method for lunar gravity simulation in the context of 2024 astronaut training at the LUNA Analog Facility.

PASR Technology

PASR stands for Photoacoustic Spectral Response, a technique combining light and sound waves to detect abnormalities in tissues. It is a non-invasive method that uses laser-induced ultrasound to provide detailed images of biological structures. PASR technology is particularly effective in early cancer detection due to its ability to differentiate between healthy and cancerous tissues based on their optical absorption properties. It is a cost-effective alternative to traditional imaging methods and requires minimal infrastructure, making it suitable for rural healthcare settings. PASR is still emerging in clinical applications, especially in developing countries.

Why in news?

IIT Indore utilized PASR technology to create a low-cost breast cancer detection device aimed at increasing early diagnosis in underserved rural areas.

Passive Safety Systems in Nuclear Reactors

Passive safety systems in nuclear reactors rely on natural physical principles like gravity, natural circulation, and convection instead of active mechanical or electrical components. These systems automatically activate without human intervention or external power during emergencies, enhancing reactor safety. Examples include gravity-driven coolant injection and heat removal via natural convection. Passive safety was first widely implemented in Generation III+ reactors and is a hallmark of many Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). These systems reduce the risk of core damage during accidents and simplify emergency response. Their reliability improves public confidence and regulatory approval for newer nuclear technologies.

Why in news?

Passive safety systems contribute to the smaller Emergency Planning Zones of SMRs, supporting Indias nuclear expansion by reducing emergency risks and preparedness costs.

Paul Trap

The Paul trap, developed by Wolfgang Paul in the 1950s, uses oscillating electric fields to confine charged particles in three dimensions. Unlike the Penning trap, it does not require a magnetic field. It operates by rapidly switching electric potentials, creating a time-averaged potential well that traps ions. Paul traps are essential in quantum computing experiments and precision spectroscopy. They can trap single ions or small ion clouds and operate effectively at room temperature, though cryogenic cooling improves stability. The Paul trap contributed to Wolfgang Paul receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989.

Why in news?

Paul traps are mentioned alongside Penning traps as key devices enabling the suspension and study of antimatter particles by preventing contact with matter.

Pebble-Bed Reactor Technology

Pebble-bed reactors use spherical fuel elements called pebbles made of uranium fuel encased in graphite. These pebbles allow for continuous fuel circulation and passive cooling, improving safety by preventing overheating without active systems. The graphite moderator also acts as a heat sink. The design enables high outlet temperatures, suitable for industrial heat and hydrogen production. Pebble-bed reactors were first developed in Germany in the 1950s and 1960s but faced technical challenges. Modern Chinese designs like HTR-PM have revived interest due to improved materials and safety features.

Why in news?

Pebble-bed technology underpins the HTR-PM reactors design, which recently achieved commercial operation, marking renewed global interest in this nuclear approach.

Penning Trap

A Penning trap confines charged particles using a combination of a strong, uniform magnetic field and a static electric quadrupole potential. Invented by Frans Penning in 1936, it allows precise measurements of particle properties by suspending them in vacuum without contact. It is widely used in mass spectrometry and fundamental physics experiments, including antimatter containment. Penning traps can maintain particles for extended periods, but require ultra-high vacuum and cryogenic temperatures. The traps design minimizes particle loss and enables manipulation of single ions or antiparticles. It played a key role in measuring the magnetic moment of the antiproton.

Why in news?

Penning traps are discussed as a critical technology in safely storing antimatter, which annihilates on contact with matter, denoting advances in containment for scientific and practical applications.

Penstock Pipes in Hydroelectric Systems

Penstock pipes are large-diameter conduits that carry water from a reservoir or dam to hydroelectric turbines. They are designed to withstand high pressure and minimize friction losses. Penstocks regulate flow rate and pressure to optimize turbine performance. Constructed from steel, concrete, or composite materials, their length and diameter directly affect energy generation efficiency. Proper maintenance prevents leaks and structural failure. Penstocks are critical in converting potential energy from stored water into mechanical energy for electricity generation in hydroelectric plants.

Why in news?

The penstock pipes in the Thottiyar Hydroelectric project receive water via a tunnel from the check dam, playing a key role in turbine operation and power output.

Pericytes

Pericytes are contractile cells wrapped around the endothelial cells of capillaries and venules throughout the body, including the brain. They regulate blood flow, stabilize blood vessels, and contribute to the formation and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Pericytes communicate with endothelial cells via gap junctions and signaling molecules, influencing angiogenesis and vascular permeability. Loss or dysfunction of pericytes is linked to neurodegenerative diseases and BBB breakdown. They also play a role in immune cell trafficking and scar formation after brain injury. Pericytes can differentiate into other cell types, including fibroblasts and macrophage-like cells, under pathological conditions.

Why in news?

Pericytes are mentioned as part of the cellular structure reinforcing the BBB, which researchers aim to bypass for improved drug delivery in CNS tuberculosis treatment.

Plasmodium Parasite

The Plasmodium genus includes over 200 species, but only five primarily cause malaria in humans – P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. P. falciparum is the deadliest and most prevalent in Africa. The parasite undergoes a complex lifecycle involving human liver and red blood cells and mosquito gut and salivary glands. It can remain dormant as hypnozoites in the liver, especially P. vivax and P. ovale, causing relapses. Plasmodium species have evolved mechanisms to evade the human immune system, including antigenic variation. Resistance to antimalarial drugs is an ongoing challenge.

Why in news?

Plasmodium parasites are central to malaria transmission, with Anopheles mosquitoes as vectors, relevant amid malaria elimination achievements like Egypt’s certification.

Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbit

A polar sun-synchronous orbit is a near-polar orbit that passes over the Earth’s poles and maintains a consistent local solar time for each pass. This orbit allows satellites to observe the Earth under uniform lighting conditions, which is vital for comparing images over time. The orbit typically has an altitude of 600–800 km and an inclination near 98 degrees. It completes approximately 14–15 orbits per day, enabling frequent revisits of the same location. This orbit is widely used for Earth observation, weather monitoring, and reconnaissance satellites due to its global coverage and consistent lighting.

Why in news?

EOS-06 operates in a polar sun-synchronous orbit to provide frequent, consistent observations for weather and cyclone monitoring.

Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs)

Potentially Hazardous Asteroids are near-Earth objects with orbits that bring them within 0.05 astronomical units (about 7.5 million km) of Earth and have a diameter greater than approximately 140 meters. These criteria focus on size and proximity, as such asteroids could cause damage upon impact. PHAs are tracked by space agencies worldwide using telescopes and radar to predict future close approaches and possible collision risks. The classification does not imply imminent danger but prioritizes monitoring for planetary defense.

Why in news?

2024 ONs classification as a potentially hazardous asteroid renewed interest in monitoring and tracking such objects to prevent future impacts.

Power Barges

Power barges are flat-bottomed vessels equipped with power generation equipment, typically diesel generators or gas turbines. They serve as floating power stations that can be moored near demand centers to provide electricity without the need for permanent land-based infrastructure. These barges are often used in regions with unreliable grids or where rapid deployment is critical. The design allows for modular expansion and ease of transport. Power barges face challenges such as fuel logistics, environmental regulations, and maintenance in marine environments, which can affect performance and operational lifespan.

Why in news?

Cubas recent lease of seven power barges from Turkish firms aims to supplement its electricity grid and reduce blackouts amid fuel shortages and aging coal plants.

Prebiotics

Prebiotics are non-digestible food components, mainly fibers, that stimulate the growth or activity of beneficial microorganisms in the gut. Unlike probiotics, prebiotics do not contain live bacteria but serve as food for them. Common prebiotics include inulin, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), and resistant starch. They enhance gut microbiota diversity and improve digestive health, immune function, and nutrient absorption. Prebiotics can reduce inflammation and have been studied for their role in preventing gastrointestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome and colorectal cancer. Their effects depend on the individual’s existing gut microbiota composition.

Why in news?

Baobab fruits dietary fiber is recognized as a natural prebiotic, boosting its value in health and nutrition sectors.

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

A Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) is a type of nuclear reactor where water under high pressure acts as both coolant and neutron moderator. This pressure prevents the water from boiling inside the reactor vessel, maintaining liquid form at temperatures around 320°C. PWRs use separate loops for the reactor coolant and steam generation, enhancing safety and efficiency. It is the most common reactor design globally, powering over half of the worlds nuclear plants. The design originated from submarine propulsion reactors in the 1950s and has been adapted for civilian power generation due to its stable operational characteristics.

Why in news?

The Akademik Lomonosov uses pressurized water reactors, denoting the application of this proven technology in novel floating nuclear power plants.

Prime Minister Early Career Research Grant

The Prime Minister Early Career Research Grant is a funding initiative under ANRF designed to support young researchers at the beginning of their careers. It provides financial aid to promising scientists to pursue innovative research projects with potential industrial applications. The grant encourages interdisciplinary and multi-institutional collaboration, aiming to encourage a culture of translational research. It is part of a broader strategy to build research capacity and retain talent within Indias scientific community, contributing to the nations long-term goal of becoming a global leader in science and technology by 2047.

Why in news?

This grant was launched in 2024 as one of ANRF’s first initiatives to boost early-stage research and innovation in Indias scientific ecosystem.

Prompt Engineering

Prompt engineering is the practice of designing and refining inputs given to AI models to produce desired outputs. It involves understanding AI behavior, syntax, and context to optimize responses. This skill is crucial in the AI-native era, where developers must communicate effectively with AI co-developers. Techniques include iterative prompt refinement, using system instructions, and context embedding. Prompt engineering is vital for controlling AI creativity, accuracy, and relevance. It emerged prominently with large language models and generative AI tools, becoming a distinct discipline bridging human intent and AI output.

Why in news?

Prompt engineering is essential in the AI-native era, enabling developers to guide AI tools effectively in coding and decision-making processes.

Protein Folding

Protein folding is the process by which a polypeptide chain attains its functional three-dimensional structure. Folding is driven by interactions such as hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic effects, and ionic interactions. Misfolding can cause diseases like Alzheimer’s and cystic fibrosis. Folding pathways are influenced by the amino acid sequence and cellular environment. Co-evolutionary signals help identify residue interactions critical for folding. Experimental techniques include X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy. Computational methods, enhanced by AI and co-evolutionary data, now predict folding pathways and final structures more accurately than ever before.

Why in news?

Advances in understanding protein folding through co-evolutionary analysis have contributed to breakthroughs in AI-based structure prediction brought into light by the 2024 Nobel Prize.

Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs)

Proton pump inhibitors are a class of drugs that reduce stomach acid production by blocking the enzyme H+/K+ ATPase in gastric parietal cells. Common PPIs include pantoprazole, omeprazole, and esomeprazole. They are widely prescribed for conditions like gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Long-term use of PPIs can lead to nutrient malabsorption, including vitamin B12, magnesium, and calcium. PPIs may increase susceptibility to gastrointestinal infections by reducing the stomach’s acidic barrier, allowing pathogens like E. coli, Clostridium difficile, and Salmonella to survive and colonize the gut.

Why in news?

PPIs like pantoprazole are linked to increased E. coli infection risk due to reduced stomach acid, relevant for managing patients during an outbreak.

Pyridine in Denatured Spirit

Pyridine is an organic compound with the formula C5H5N, used as a denaturant in some formulations of denatured spirit. It has a distinctive fishy odor and is a basic heterocyclic aromatic compound. Pyridine is toxic if ingested, causing symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and neurological effects. It acts as a deterrent additive to make ethanol unpalatable and harmful if consumed. Pyridine is also employed in the chemical industry as a solvent and reagent in organic synthesis. Its inclusion in denatured spirit varies by region and is less common than methanol but still in regulatory contexts.

Why in news?

Pyridine is mentioned as one of the additives complicating the regulation and enforcement of denatured spirit misuse for illicit liquor production.

Quantum Magnetocaloric Effect

The quantum magnetocaloric effect is a phenomenon where quantum magnetic materials change temperature in response to applied magnetic fields due to spin entropy variations. Unlike classical magnetocaloric effects, quantum versions exploit entangled spin states and quantum fluctuations for enhanced cooling efficiency. This effect enables refrigeration by manipulating magnetic entropy at microscopic scales, allowing ultra-low temperature drops without liquid cryogens. It is particularly effective in materials with low-dimensional or frustrated magnetic lattices, such as cobalt-based compounds. Research into this effect aims to develop sustainable, compact refrigeration for quantum devices and sensitive sensors.

Why in news?

The cobalt-based quantum magnetic material utilizes this effect to achieve near absolute zero cooling without helium, marking advance in cryogenic technology.

Rare Gases in High-Tech Industries

Rare gases, including helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon, have critical applications in high-tech industries. Helium is used in cooling superconducting magnets in MRI machines and in semiconductor manufacturing. Neon is essential for neon lighting and high-voltage indicators. Argon serves as an inert gas shield in welding and in light bulbs. Krypton and xenon are used in specialized lighting and medical imaging. The demand for these gases is rising due to advances in electronics, healthcare, and aerospace sectors. Their scarcity and extraction difficulty make them strategically important commodities in global energy and technology markets.

Why in news?

The Amur projects focus on helium extraction marks the broader importance of rare gases in technology and energy sectors, influencing global supply and geopolitical strategies.

Reaction Control System (RCS)

The Reaction Control System (RCS) consists of small thrusters used on spacecraft to control orientation (attitude) and perform fine maneuvers in space. It operates by expelling gas or propellant to generate torque. RCS thrusters are essential during docking, reentry adjustments, and station-keeping. They typically use hypergolic propellants or compressed gases like helium. Failures in the RCS can compromise spacecraft stability and control, leading to mission risks. The system is separate from main engines and provides precise, short bursts of thrust for attitude correction and trajectory fine-tuning.

Why in news?

Malfunction of the Starliners reaction control thrusters contributed to the spacecrafts inability to safely return astronauts from the ISS in 2024.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Radiation Biology

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules containing oxygen, such as superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals. They are produced naturally in cellular metabolism but increase during radiation exposure, causing oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids. Cells counteract ROS with antioxidant systems, but excessive ROS leads to cellular stress and death. In radiation biology, managing ROS is crucial for protecting tissues during cancer therapies and space travel. Certain organisms, like tardigrades, have evolved mechanisms, including antioxidant pigments, to neutralize ROS and enhance survival under high radiation.

Why in news?

ROS are central to understanding how tardigrade-derived betalains protect cells from radiation-induced oxidative damage, suggesting new strategies for radiation therapy and protection.

Real-time Transmission Capacity Monitoring

Real-time transmission capacity monitoring involves using sensor networks and communication systems to assess the actual operating conditions of power lines continuously. This approach accounts for dynamic environmental variables affecting conductor temperature and sag, such as wind speed and solar radiation. The data enables operators to adjust power flow limits instantaneously, improving grid reliability and preventing outages. This system reduces reliance on conservative static ratings and supports the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources by managing fluctuating power flows efficiently.

Why in news?

The National Electricity Plan 2024 promotes real-time monitoring to optimize transmission capacity, reduce congestion, and facilitate renewable energy integration using technologies like Dynamic Line Rating.

Ribonuclease

Ribonuclease (RNase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components. The most studied form, RNase A, is found in the pancreas of cows and humans. It consists of 124 amino acids and contains four disulfide bonds that stabilize its structure. RNase A was crucial in protein folding studies because it can be denatured and then spontaneously refold into its active form, demonstrating that the amino acid sequence alone determines protein structure. This enzyme is also used in molecular biology to remove RNA contamination from DNA preparations.

Why in news?

Ribonuclease was central to Christian Anfinsens Nobel-winning experiments proving that proteins can refold spontaneously based on their amino acid sequence.

Ring of Fire (Solar Eclipse)

The ring of fire is the bright, thin ring of sunlight visible around the Moon during an annular solar eclipse. It occurs because the Moons apparent diameter is smaller than the Suns, leaving the Suns outer edges exposed. This phenomenon differs from total eclipses, where the Sun is completely obscured. The ring of fire can last several minutes, depending on the relative speeds and distances of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. The term ring of fire is also used in geology but in solar eclipses refers specifically to this luminous annulus.

Why in news?

The ring of fire was prominently observed during the October 2, 2024, annular solar eclipse visible over parts of South America.

RISE Mission

The RISE (Robotic Interceptor for Space Exploration) mission is a planned space operation focusing on robotic servicing and docking with geostationary satellites. It targets satellites in and above the geostationary graveyard orbit, aiming to extend their operational life by refueling or repairs. RISE employs autonomous robotics technologies and advanced navigation systems to approach non-cooperative satellites. The mission supports sustainable space operations by reducing the need to launch replacements and minimizing space debris accumulation. It is one of the first efforts demonstrating in-orbit servicing in high Earth orbit regimes.

Why in news?

RISE plans to conduct docking and servicing demonstrations in the geostationary graveyard orbit to extend satellite lifetimes and reduce debris.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular process where double-stranded RNA molecules trigger the degradation of complementary messenger RNA (mRNA), effectively silencing gene expression. RNAi involves key proteins like Dicer, which cleaves long dsRNA into small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that guides mRNA cleavage. RNAi was first observed in petunias and later extensively studied in C. elegans. It is widely used as a research tool for gene knockdown and has therapeutic potential in treating viral infections and genetic disorders. RNAi pathways are conserved across many eukaryotes.

Why in news?

RNAi is central to gene silencing, a biological process that underpins advances in genetic disease therapies and molecular biology research.

Robert H. McNaught

Robert H. McNaught is an Australian astronomer known for discovering over 400 asteroids and comets, including asteroid 1991 VG, the first identified Arjuna-type NEO. He has contributed to Near-Earth Object observations and discovered the bright comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught), the brightest comet in over 40 years. McNaught worked at the Australian National University and the Siding Spring Observatory. His discoveries helped improve understanding of small bodies in the solar system and their potential Earth impact risks. McNaughts work spans asteroid tracking, comet discovery, and celestial survey projects.

Why in news?

McNaughts 1991 discovery of asteroid 1991 VG initiated the identification of the Arjuna asteroid group, recently linked to the 2024 PT5 mini-moon.

Salience Network

The salience network is a large-scale brain network that detects and filters important stimuli to guide behavior. It primarily involves the anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex. This network switches between the brains default mode and central executive networks, prioritizing attention and resources. It integrates sensory, emotional, and cognitive information to identify relevant events. Dysfunction in the salience network is implicated in psychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. The network’s expansion into frontostriatal regions links it closely to motivation and effort-based decision-making processes.

Why in news?

The salience networks extension into frontostriatal areas explains its role in effort-related decisions, offering vital information about depressions neural mechanisms.

Sanskrit Phonetic Precision

Sanskrits phonetic system is based on the Devanagari script and is highly systematic, with precise articulation points for each sound. The language uses a set of 49 phonemes, categorized by place and manner of articulation, making pronunciation rules exact. This precision aids in accurate oral transmission of texts, crucial in Vedic chanting traditions. The phonetic clarity also makes Sanskrit suitable for computational processing, including natural language processing and speech recognition research. The languages sound system is organized into vowels, consonants, and semivowels, with distinct rules for sandhi (sound combination) that preserve phonetic integrity.

Why in news?

The phonetic precision of Sanskrit was brought into light by Uttar Pradesh’s Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath in discussions promoting the languages adaptability to modern scientific and educational contexts.

Sarvam-1

Sarvam-1 is an AI language model developed with a focus on Indic languages. It emphasizes optimized performance on linguistic tasks involving Hindi, Tamil, Bengali, and other Indian languages. Sarvam-1 demonstrates higher accuracy and better contextual understanding on IndicGenBench compared to larger, more generalist models. The models architecture is tailored to handle the complex morphology and syntax of Indic languages, which often pose challenges for multilingual models. Sarvam-1s development reflects growing efforts to create AI that respects and understands cultural and linguistic diversity in Indias language ecosystem.

Why in news?

Sarvam-1 outperformed larger AI models on IndicGenBench, denoting its advanced capabilities in processing Indic languages and setting a new standard for region-specific AI language models.

Satellite Backhauling

Satellite backhauling involves using communication satellites to connect 5G cell sites with the core network. It is essential in remote or inaccessible regions where laying fiber or microwave links is impractical. Satellite backhaul typically has higher latency and cost compared to terrestrial methods but provides critical coverage where alternatives are unavailable. It uses geostationary or low-earth orbit satellites to relay data. Advances in satellite technology, such as high-throughput satellites and LEO constellations, are improving capacity and latency, making satellite backhaul more viable for 5G in challenging environments.

Why in news?

Satellite backhauling remains a focus due to its role in supporting 5G in rural India, affecting regulatory discussions on spectrum use and satellite services.

Selective Pressure in Microbial Resistance

Selective pressure refers to environmental factors that favor survival of certain microbial strains over others. Antimicrobial agents create selective pressure by killing sensitive bacteria, enabling resistant ones to multiply. This drives evolution of resistance through genetic mutations or horizontal gene transfer. Selective pressure can occur in hospitals, agriculture, and consumer products like antimicrobial toothbrushes. It accelerates the spread of resistance genes, complicating infection control. Reducing unnecessary antimicrobial exposure is critical to managing selective pressure and limiting resistant pathogen emergence.

Why in news?

The role of selective pressure in antimicrobial toothbrush use is brought into light as a cause of increasing antibiotic resistance in microbial populations.

Sex-disaggregated Data Analysis in Cardiology

Sex-disaggregated data analysis involves separating clinical data by biological sex to identify differences in disease presentation, progression, and treatment response. In cardiology, this approach reveals that women often have different symptoms and risk profiles for heart disease than men. Historically, women were underrepresented in cardiovascular research, leading to gaps in diagnosis and care. Incorporating sex-disaggregated data improves personalized treatment plans and reduces disparities. The 2022 GRACE update used AI to analyze such data, enhancing risk prediction models and tailoring interventions. This method supports equitable healthcare by recognizing sex-specific cardiovascular disease characteristics.

Why in news?

GRACEs new AI models use sex-disaggregated data analysis to improve heart attack risk prediction accuracy and reduce gender disparities in cardiac care.

Sex-Specific Disease Characteristics in Cardiovascular Risk

Sex-specific disease characteristics refer to biological and clinical differences between males and females that affect disease presentation, progression, and outcomes. In cardiovascular disease, women often exhibit different symptoms, risk factors, and responses to treatment compared to men. For example, women may have more microvascular dysfunction and atypical chest pain. These differences historically led to underdiagnosis and undertreatment of women. Incorporating sex-specific data in risk models improves prediction accuracy and patient management. The 2022 AI-enhanced GRACE score is among the first to systematically apply these distinctions in a validated clinical tool.

Why in news?

The update to the GRACE risk score includes sex-specific disease characteristics to improve risk stratification and early intervention for women with acute coronary syndrome.

Silver Ions as Antimicrobial Agents

Silver ions (Ag+) are widely used for their antimicrobial properties in medical devices, textiles, and consumer products. They kill bacteria by binding to cell membranes and DNA, disrupting vital functions. Silver ions can induce oxidative stress in microbes, leading to cell death. However, prolonged exposure can lead to bacterial resistance through mechanisms like efflux pumps or silver ion sequestration. Silver nanoparticles release silver ions slowly, enhancing antimicrobial longevity. Environmental concerns exist due to silver accumulation and toxicity to aquatic life.

Why in news?

Silver ions are a key antimicrobial component in toothbrushes implicated in encouraging antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as brought into light by recent studies.

Simulated Annealing

Simulated annealing is a probabilistic optimization algorithm inspired by the physical process of heating and slowly cooling metals to remove defects. It searches for a global minimum in complex problems by allowing occasional uphill moves to escape local minima. The method uses a temperature parameter that decreases over time, controlling the likelihood of accepting worse solutions. It was adapted in machine learning to help Boltzmann machines reach equilibrium states by gradually lowering the systems “temperature,” enabling the network to settle into a stable configuration representing learned data patterns.

Why in news?

Simulated annealing is integral to how Boltzmann machines learn, a technique brought into light in Geoffrey Hintons Nobel-winning research on AI.

Simultaneous Drone Shows

Simultaneous drone shows involve the coordinated flight of thousands of drones to create aerial displays and formations. This technology uses GPS and real-time communication to synchronize drones, enabling complex patterns and animations. The largest drone shows can feature over 5000 drones, requiring advanced software and precision control to avoid collisions. Such shows are used for entertainment, advertising, and demonstration of drone capabilities in events worldwide. They show advances in drone swarm technology and are increasingly replacing traditional fireworks for environmental and safety reasons.

Why in news?

The Amaravati Drone Summit 2024 includes Indias largest drone show with over 5000 drones flying simultaneously, demonstrating cutting-edge drone coordination technology.

Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose

Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937) was an Indian polymath who pioneered research in plant physiology and biophysics. He invented the crescograph, an instrument to measure plant growth. Bose was among the first to demonstrate that plants respond to stimuli similarly to animals, laying foundations for biophysics. He also contributed to radio and microwave optics, independently developing wireless communication technologies. Bose was knighted in 1917 and was the first Indian scientist to gain international recognition in multiple scientific disciplines. He founded Bose Institute to promote interdisciplinary scientific research in India.

Why in news?

The Bose Institute, founded by Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, is in the news for its recent biomedical research breakthroughs involving SARS-CoV-1 protein-based hydrogels.

Small Modular Reactor (SMR)

A Small Modular Reactor (SMR) is a compact nuclear reactor design typically producing up to 300 MWe. SMRs emphasize factory fabrication, modular construction, and enhanced safety features. Their smaller size allows deployment in remote or limited-infrastructure areas, including floating platforms. SMRs can be scaled up by adding modules and are designed to reduce capital costs and construction times compared to traditional reactors. Many SMR designs incorporate passive safety systems that operate without active controls or human intervention. The technology is seen as a potential solution for clean energy in isolated regions and for replacing retiring fossil fuel plants.

Why in news?

The Akademik Lomonosov represents a pioneering operational example of SMR technology, showcasing its role in expanding nuclear power accessibility.

Snout-Vent Length (SVL)

Snout-vent length (SVL) is a standard measurement in herpetology, representing the distance from the tip of an animals snout to the opening of its cloaca (vent). It excludes the tail, providing a consistent way to compare body sizes among reptiles and amphibians. SVL is preferred because tail length can vary due to injury or regeneration. This measurement helps in species identification, growth studies, and ecological research. SVL is particularly important in snakes and lizards for assessing age, health, and sexual maturity. It is widely used in field studies and taxonomic descriptions.

Why in news?

SVL is referenced to describe the small body size of the newly discovered snake species Anguiculus dicaprioi.

Social Engineering Attacks

Social engineering attacks manipulate individuals into divulging confidential information or performing actions that compromise security. These attacks exploit human psychology rather than technical vulnerabilities. Techniques include phishing, pretexting, baiting, and impersonation. Deepfake technology has enhanced social engineering by enabling realistic fake audio and video of trusted individuals, increasing the likelihood of victim compliance. Social engineering attacks often serve as the first step in larger cybercrime schemes, facilitating unauthorized access, identity theft, and financial fraud. The integration of deepfake tools into these attacks has escalated their effectiveness and complexity.

Why in news?

Deepfake software amplifies social engineering scams in Southeast Asia, contributing to the rise of cyber-enabled fraud.

Solar Corona

The solar corona is the outermost layer of the Suns atmosphere, extending millions of kilometers into space. It is characterized by temperatures exceeding one million degrees Kelvin, much hotter than the solar surface. The corona is visible during total solar eclipses as a white halo. It emits X-rays and is the source region for solar wind and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). The coronas high temperature is not fully understood but is thought to involve magnetic reconnection and wave heating. Its structure is shaped by the Suns magnetic field, forming loops and streamers that influence space weather.

Why in news?

CMEs originate from the solar corona, which is highly active during the current solar maximum, affecting Earths space environment.

Space Bio-Manufacturing

Space bio-manufacturing involves producing biological products in microgravity environments, leveraging unique space conditions to enhance or create biomaterials not possible on Earth. Microgravity affects cellular behavior, protein crystallization, and tissue engineering, enabling advances in regenerative medicine and pharmaceuticals. This field uses space stations or satellites as platforms for experiments and production. Indias inclusion of space bio-manufacturing in BIOE3 is among the first national policies integrating space-based biotech with terrestrial industrial goals, aiming to develop novel bio-products and sustainable technologies for Earth and space applications.

Why in news?

The ISRO-DBT partnership under BIOE3 is conducting space bio-manufacturing experiments to explore microgravitys potential on biotechnology innovations.

Space Traffic Management (STM)

Space Traffic Management refers to coordinated efforts and regulatory frameworks to monitor, coordinate, and mitigate risks from increasing numbers of satellites and debris in Earth’s orbit. STM aims to prevent collisions, manage orbital slots, and reduce debris generation through guidelines and technologies. It involves international cooperation, data sharing, and use of tracking systems like the U.S. Space Surveillance Network. STM is not yet governed by a comprehensive treaty but is evolving through national policies and multilateral discussions. It addresses challenges posed by mega-constellations and debris, promoting sustainable use of space environments.

Why in news?

Growing satellite congestion and incidents like Intelsat 33e’s breakup have renewed calls for robust Space Traffic Management frameworks to ensure orbital safety and liability enforcement.

SPADEX Mission

SPADEX stands for Space Docking Experiment, a mission aimed at demonstrating autonomous docking and rendezvous capabilities in space. The mission involves two satellites, each weighing approximately 400kg, designed to test technologies critical for future space station assembly and on-orbit servicing. SPADEX is part of Indias broader effort to develop advanced satellite servicing and orbital maneuvering technologies. The mission is notable for being the first where fully assembled satellites were delivered by a private company, signaling a new era in Indias space sector. SPADEX satellites were integrated and tested by ATL before delivery to ISRO.

Why in news?

The SPADEX mission represents a milestone in autonomous satellite docking technology and increased private sector participation in Indian space missions.

Spray-Drying Stabilization Technique

Spray drying is a process that converts liquid materials into dry powders by rapidly drying with hot gas. It is widely used in pharmaceuticals to stabilize nanoparticles and aggregates. The technique involves atomizing a liquid feed into a heated chamber, where solvent evaporation produces dry particles. Spray drying preserves the physical and chemical integrity of sensitive compounds and enhances storage stability. It allows control over particle size, morphology, and moisture content. Spray-dried powders typically have improved flow properties and re-dispersibility. This method is scalable and compatible with various polymers and drugs, making it ideal for nasal drug formulations.

Why in news?

Spray drying was used to stabilize chitosan nano-aggregates for nasal administration of TB drugs to improve shelf life and delivery efficiency.

Springer Nature

Springer Nature is a major academic publishing company formed in 2015 by merging Springer Science+Business Media and Nature Publishing Group. It publishes over 3,000 journals and 13,000 books annually, covering sciences, technology, and medicine. Springer Nature is a leader in Open Access publishing, offering various APC-based journals. The company supports research data policies and innovative digital tools for authors and readers. It operates the SpringerLink platform, hosting millions of articles. Springer Nature is headquartered in Germany and the UK, with a global presence. It invests in initiatives to improve peer review transparency and reproducibility in research.

Why in news?

Springer is a key partner in APC discount agreements with Indian universities aiming to reduce publication costs and enhance research visibility internationally.

Springer Verlag

Springer Verlag is a major global academic publisher founded in 1842 in Germany. It specializes in scientific, technical, and medical books and journals. Springer is known for its extensive portfolio of peer-reviewed publications and conference proceedings, including those in engineering and applied sciences. It was one of the first publishers to adopt electronic publishing and open access models. Springer supports interdisciplinary research dissemination, including computational heat and mass transfer. The company merged with Nature Publishing Group in 2015 to form Springer Nature, expanding its reach in high-impact scientific communication.

Why in news?

Springer Verlag published the proceedings of the ICCHMT 2023 conference, which included innovative research on bioheat transfer and retinal drug delivery.

Srijan – Center for Generative AI

Srijan is a Center for Generative AI established in 2024 at IIT Jodhpur. It focuses on research, development, and application of generative AI technologies, including large language models, image synthesis, and automated content creation. Srijan collaborates with academic institutions, industry partners, and government agencies to advance generative AI capabilities and ethical frameworks. The center supports AI education by developing curricula, conducting workshops, and facilitating innovation projects. It aims to position India as a leader in generative AI research and its practical deployment across sectors such as healthcare, education, and creative industries.

Why in news?

Srijan was launched with support from AICTE, Meta, and IndiaAI to drive generative AI research and education as part of Indias expanding AI ecosystem.

Standardization of Ayurvedic Practices

Standardization in Ayurveda involves creating uniform guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and preparation of Ayurvedic medicines. This process includes quality control of herbal ingredients, dosage standardization, and clinical protocol development. It aims to ensure safety, efficacy, and reproducibility of Ayurvedic treatments. Organizations like the All India Ayurvedic Congress and the Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) play key roles in this effort. Standardization helps Ayurveda gain wider acceptance in mainstream healthcare and facilitates regulatory approvals for Ayurvedic products domestically and internationally.

Why in news?

The All India Ayurvedic Congress supports standardization efforts to promote Ayurveda’s integration into modern healthcare systems.

Standardized Growth Charts in Skeletal Age Assessment

Standardized growth charts for bone development are created from large population studies documenting ossification stages at various ages. These charts map the appearance, size, and fusion of bones in the hands and wrists to typical age ranges. They help interpret X-ray results during bone ossification tests, providing comparative data to estimate biological age. Variations can occur due to genetics, nutrition, and health conditions. These charts are periodically updated as new data emerges, improving accuracy. The most widely used charts include the Greulich and Pyle atlas and the Tanner-Whitehouse method.

Why in news?

Growth charts underpin the bone ossification test used by Mumbai courts to assess the age of suspects when official documents are missing or questioned.

Stanford Moore

Stanford Moore was an American biochemist known for his work on enzyme chemistry and protein sequencing. He developed methods to analyze the amino acid composition of proteins and collaborated extensively with William H. Stein. Together, they improved techniques for protein purification and characterization, particularly of ribonuclease. Moores research contributed to understanding enzyme mechanisms and protein structure. He shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Anfinsen and Stein for these advances. Moore also helped develop the first automated amino acid analyzer, which revolutionized protein chemistry by enabling faster and more precise analysis.

Why in news?

Stanford Moore is mentioned as a co-recipient of the 1972 Nobel Prize alongside Anfinsen for contributions to enzyme chemistry.

Starlink

Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by SpaceX, aiming to provide global broadband coverage. It consists of over 4,000 low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites as of 2024. Starlink uses frequencies allocated by regulatory bodies worldwide and faces challenges in spectrum access and licensing. It supports remote and underserved regions with high-speed internet. Starlinks technology includes phased-array antennas and low-latency communication. The company has been expanding rapidly but depends on spectrum policies, which differ by country and affect deployment speed and service quality.

Why in news?

Starlink is impacted by Indias decision to allocate satellite spectrum administratively, affecting its market entry and operational plans in the country.

Stellar Evolution Off the Main Sequence

Stars classified as sub-giants have exhausted hydrogen in their cores and are expanding and cooling as they leave the main sequence phase. This stage precedes the red giant phase and involves changes in a stars luminosity, radius, and surface temperature. The transition affects the stars radiation output and gravitational field, impacting orbiting bodies. Sub-giants often have spectral types close to their main sequence classification but show signs of core hydrogen depletion. This evolutionary phase can last hundreds of millions to a few billion years depending on the stars mass.

Why in news?

TOI-6651 is in the sub-giant phase, influencing the physical and orbital characteristics of its planet TOI-6651b, drawing attention to stellar evolution effects on exoplanets.

Stereochemically Active Lone Pairs

Stereochemically active lone pairs are non-bonding electron pairs on atoms that influence the geometry of a molecule or crystal by causing asymmetric electron density distribution. In solid-state materials, these lone pairs can induce local distortions by pushing neighboring atoms, leading to lowered local symmetry. Elements like lead (Pb) often exhibit such lone pairs, which contribute to phenomena like emphanisis. These lone pairs are critical in tuning material properties such as ferroelectricity, band gap, and thermal conductivity, especially in halide perovskites and thermoelectric materials.

Why in news?

The role of leads stereochemically active lone pairs in Cs₂PbI₂Cl₂ was key to the observed emphanisis effect reported by JNCASR scientists.

Stomach Acid as a Microbial Barrier

Stomach acid, primarily hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1.5 to 3.5, acts as a chemical barrier by killing or inhibiting many ingested pathogens. It plays a critical role in innate immunity by denaturing bacterial proteins and disrupting cell membranes. The acidic environment limits colonization by harmful bacteria such as E. coli, Helicobacter pylori, and Salmonella. Variations in acid production can affect susceptibility to infections. Besides microbial defense, stomach acid aids digestion by activating pepsinogen to pepsin and facilitating nutrient absorption.

Why in news?

The protective role of stomach acid is brought into light in the context of increased infections among acid-suppressing drug users during an E. coli outbreak.

Stroma (Corneal Layer)

The stroma is the thickest corneal layer, comprising about 90% of the cornea’s thickness. It consists mainly of regularly arranged collagen fibers and keratocytes, providing strength and transparency. The stroma is avascular, relying on diffusion for nutrients. Injuries or diseases like keratoconus primarily affect the stroma, leading to corneal thinning and distortion. Stromal transplantation, known as deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty (DALK), replaces only the stroma while preserving the endothelium and epithelium. This technique reduces rejection risk since the endothelium remains intact. The stromal collagen arrangement is crucial for corneal transparency and refractive properties.

Why in news?

Hospitals in India are adopting stromal transplantation techniques to treat patients with stromal damage, optimizing the use of each donor cornea.

Structural Bias in Medical Risk Assessment

Structural bias in medical risk assessment occurs when clinical tools or protocols systematically favor one group over another, often due to underrepresentation or lack of tailored data. In cardiovascular medicine, many risk models historically underestimated women’s risk because they were developed using predominantly male data. This bias affects diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. AI models that incorporate diverse and sex-specific data can identify and correct these biases, leading to more equitable healthcare. The 2022 update of the GRACE risk score is an example of addressing structural bias by tailoring predictions to sex-specific clinical features.

Why in news?

The GRACE risk score update addresses structural bias in cardiovascular risk models by using AI to tailor predictions and treatment recommendations based on sex-specific clinical data.

T Follicular Helper Cells

T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a specialized subset of CD4+ T cells located in germinal centres. They express the chemokine receptor CXCR5, which guides them to B-cell follicles. Tfh cells produce interleukin-21 (IL-21), a cytokine essential for B-cell proliferation, differentiation, and class switching. They form stable interactions with B-cells, providing co-stimulatory signals like CD40L, crucial for affinity maturation. Tfh cells are distinct from other helper T-cell subsets due to their unique transcription factor Bcl-6. Dysregulation of Tfh cells is implicated in autoimmune diseases and impaired vaccine responses.

Why in news?

T follicular helper cells are discussed as key players in germinal centre function, influencing the quality and longevity of antibody responses after vaccination.

Tacrolimus

Tacrolimus is a macrolide lactone isolated from the bacterium Streptomyces tsukubaensis. It acts as a calcineurin inhibitor, suppressing T-cell activation by binding to the immunophilin FKBP12. Tacrolimus was first approved in 1994 for preventing organ transplant rejection. Its topical formulation treats inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis and vitiligo. Tacrolimus does not cause skin atrophy, differentiating it from corticosteroids. Rare side effects include local burning sensation and increased risk of skin infections. It is metabolized by liver enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP3A5, influencing drug interactions and clearance rates.

Why in news?

Tacrolimus is cited as a key topical calcineurin inhibitor used in vitiligo treatment, relevant to current dermatological therapies.

Third-Party App Stores on Android

Third-party app stores are alternative platforms to the Google Play Store for downloading Android applications. Examples include the Amazon Appstore, Samsung Galaxy Store, and F-Droid. These stores often offer apps not available on Google Play or allow different payment systems. Historically, Google restricted sideloading or third-party stores to limit security risks and maintain revenue through Play Store transactions. The injunction against Google challenges this control, potentially increasing competition. Third-party stores can vary in app curation, security standards, and user base size. Androids open-source nature technically permits such stores, but market dominance has limited their growth.

Why in news?

The injunction mandates Google to open the Play Store to third-party apps, ending exclusive control and allowing alternative app distribution channels on Android devices.

Trypanosomes

Trypanosomes are unicellular parasitic protozoa belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. They are transmitted primarily by tsetse flies and cause diseases like African sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in livestock. The parasites evade host immune responses by regularly changing their surface proteins, a process called antigenic variation. Trypanosomes undergo complex life cycles alternating between insect vectors and mammalian hosts. The main species affecting humans are Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Their presence severely impacts public health and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.

Why in news?

Trypanosomes are brought into light due to their transmission by Glossina palpalis, as mapped by the FAO atlas, underlining ongoing concerns about African trypanosomiasis in West Africa.

Twin-Screw Extruder

A twin-screw extruder is a machine with two intermeshing screws rotating inside a barrel, used for mixing and shaping materials under controlled heat and pressure. It allows precise control over temperature, shear, and residence time, essential for producing uniform fortified rice kernels. This technology improves nutrient retention and kernel quality. Twin-screw extruders are widely used in food processing, plastics, and pharmaceuticals. The design can be co-rotating or counter-rotating, influencing mixing efficiency. They enable continuous processing, making them suitable for large-scale industrial production of fortified foods like FRKs.

Why in news?

Twin-screw extruders are integral to producing fortified rice kernels used in Indias large-scale rice fortification initiative.

Tyrosyl-DNA Phosphodiesterase 1 (TDP1)

TDP1 is an enzyme that repairs DNA by removing covalent adducts between DNA and topoisomerase I, a critical step in resolving DNA damage. It belongs to the phospholipase D superfamily and operates via a two-step catalytic mechanism involving a transient covalent intermediate. TDP1 activity is crucial during DNA replication and repair, especially in response to topoisomerase I inhibitors used in chemotherapy. Mutations in the TDP1 gene cause the rare neurodegenerative disorder SCAN1 (Spinocerebellar Ataxia with Axonal Neuropathy). TDP1s regulation by phosphorylation during mitosis enhances its DNA repair capability, linking it to cell cycle control beyond its canonical function.

Why in news?

TDP1s phosphorylation by CDK1 during mitosis was discovered to enhance DNA repair in cancer cells, suggesting a mechanism that may contribute to chemotherapy resistance against Top1 inhibitors.

Ultrasound-based Cancer Detection

Ultrasound-based cancer detection uses sound waves to create images of internal organs and tissues, aiding early diagnosis without radiation exposure. It is commonly used for breast, thyroid, and abdominal cancers. Recent advances include high-frequency probes and elastography, which measure tissue stiffness to distinguish benign from malignant lesions. Portable ultrasound devices have improved accessibility in low-resource settings. Ultrasound can complement mammography, especially in dense breast tissue. Limitations include operator dependency and lower sensitivity for certain cancers. Research continues on integrating ultrasound with AI to enhance diagnostic accuracy and reduce false positives.

Why in news?

Ultrasound-based detection is one of the new screening technologies being tested in the CSRNs pilot study involving 24,000 participants.

University of Pittsburgh Gamma Knife Center

The University of Pittsburgh Gamma Knife Center is a leading facility specializing in stereotactic radiosurgery. It offers advanced training and treatment for brain tumors, vascular malformations, and functional disorders using the Gamma Knife technology. The center integrates neurosurgery, radiation oncology, and medical physics to provide comprehensive care. It is one of the few centers globally accredited for both clinical treatment and professional training in Gamma Knife Surgery. The center uses the latest cobalt-60 sources and planning software, treating hundreds of patients annually with a focus on minimally invasive therapies.

Why in news?

Vice Admiral Arti Sarin received specialized Gamma Knife Surgery training at the University of Pittsburgh, underscoring the center’s role in educating top radiation oncology professionals.

Upskilling in Software Engineering

Upskilling refers to the process of learning new skills or enhancing existing ones to meet evolving job demands. In software engineering, this increasingly involves acquiring expertise in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and automation tools. Gartner predicts that by 2027, 80% of software engineers will require upskilling to stay relevant. This shift is driven by AIs integration into development workflows, necessitating proficiency in AI-assisted coding, data analysis, and ethical AI design. Continuous learning platforms, coding bootcamps, and corporate training programs have expanded to support this trend globally.

Why in news?

Gartners forecast marks transformation in software engineering skills, emphasizing AI-related education to maintain workforce competitiveness.

UR Rao Satellite Centre

The UR Rao Satellite Centre, located in Bengaluru, is ISROs primary satellite design, development, and integration facility. Formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), it was renamed in honor of Udupi Ramachandra Rao, ISROs former chairman. The centre handles satellite assembly, integration, and testing for all Indian space missions and manages payload development. It plays a vital role in advancing Indias space capabilities, including the recent SPADEX mission satellites delivered by ATL. The centre has contributed to over 100 satellite missions since its inception and continues to be the hub for satellite technology innovation in India.

Why in news?

The UR Rao Satellite Centre received two fully integrated satellites from ATL for the SPADEX mission, denoting collaboration between ISRO and private industry.

Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC)

The Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) is a research institution under India’s Department of Atomic Energy, located in Kolkata. It specializes in nuclear physics and accelerator technology. VECC operates a cyclotron that accelerates charged particles at variable energies for research in nuclear reactions and materials science. The center also develops advanced RF technologies derived from its accelerator expertise. VECC collaborates internationally and contributes to medical isotope production and cancer therapy research. It has extended its RF technology applications beyond physics, notably to agricultural product drying, demonstrating interdisciplinary innovation.

Why in news?

VECC is applying its RF technology from particle accelerator research to develop energy-efficient drying systems for agriculture.

Venture Capital Fund for Space Startups in India

India has introduced a specialized venture capital fund dedicated to space startups, aiming to stimulate private investment in the domestic space sector. This fund supports early-stage companies focusing on satellite technology, launch services, and space applications. It is part of a broader government initiative to encourage innovation and commercialization in space. The fund facilitates access to capital for startups that traditionally faced funding challenges due to high risks and long development cycles in space technology. This initiative is expected to diversify Indias space ecosystem and accelerate technological advancements through private enterprise.

Why in news?

The governments launch of a venture capital fund for space startups is designed to propel private sector growth and innovation within Indias expanding space economy.

Venus Orbit Injection (VOI)

Venus Orbit Injection is a critical spacecraft maneuver to enter orbit around Venus. It involves firing the spacecrafts engines at a precise moment to slow down from interplanetary speed and be captured by Venuss gravity. The orbit achieved initially is typically highly elliptical, with altitudes ranging widely, such as 500 km to 60,000 km in the Venus Orbiter Mission. This orbit allows initial scientific observations and sets the stage for subsequent maneuvers like aerobraking to reach a stable science orbit. VOI requires exact timing and trajectory calculations to avoid mission failure or spacecraft loss.

Why in news?

The Venus Orbiter Mission recently completed its Venus Orbit Injection, beginning its scientific campaign and preparing for aerobraking operations.

Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM)

The Venus Orbiter Mission is an Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) project launched to study Venuss atmosphere, surface, and plasma environment. It carries instruments to analyze atmospheric composition, thermal emissions, and cloud dynamics. The mission aims to understand Venuss climate history and its runaway greenhouse effect. VOM is notable for testing aerobraking technology, a first for ISRO, to reduce orbit altitude efficiently. The spacecrafts orbit will have an inclination of about 90 degrees, enabling global coverage. The mission follows previous Venus explorers like ESAs Venus Express and NASAs Magellan but introduces new ISRO technologies and scientific objectives.

Why in news?

ISROs Venus Orbiter Mission is currently executing aerobraking to transition to its final science orbit for detailed atmospheric studies.

Walker Circulation

The Walker Circulation is an east-west atmospheric circulation pattern over the tropical Pacific Ocean. It involves rising air over the warm western Pacific, eastward movement of upper-level winds, sinking air over the cooler eastern Pacific, and westward surface trade winds. This circulation influences ocean surface temperatures and weather patterns. During El Niño, the Walker Circulation weakens, disrupting trade winds and warming the eastern Pacific. During La Niña, it strengthens, enhancing cooling in the eastern Pacific. The Walker Circulation plays a key role in the ENSO cycle and global climate variability through its control of heat and moisture distribution.

Why in news?

Walker Circulation remains stable during the ENSO-Neutral phase reported in October 2024, reflecting typical tropical Pacific atmospheric conditions.

Weak Coherent Pulses

Weak coherent pulses are light pulses with an average photon number less than one, produced by attenuated lasers rather than single-photon sources. They are easier to generate and control, making them practical for quantum communication systems. Unlike single photons, weak coherent pulses have a Poissonian photon number distribution, which introduces multi-photon probabilities that can affect security in quantum cryptography. Techniques like decoy states help mitigate this. These pulses enable scalable and cost-effective quantum key distribution, bridging the gap between ideal quantum sources and real-world applications.

Why in news?

The use of weak coherent pulses in Hong-Ou-Mandel dip measurements was showcased at ITU Kaleidoscope 2024, improving the practicality of quantum networks.

Wide-Field Telescopes in Asteroid Detection

Wide-field telescopes have a large field of view, allowing them to scan vast portions of the sky quickly. They are essential for detecting fast-moving, small near-Earth objects that traditional narrow-field telescopes might miss. ATLAS uses multiple wide-field telescopes to repeatedly image the sky each night, improving detection rates. These telescopes employ sensitive CCD cameras and automated software to identify moving objects against background stars. Their design balances sensitivity with coverage area, enabling early warning of potential asteroid impacts. Wide-field telescopes are increasingly vital in planetary defense and space situational awareness.

Why in news?

ATLASs use of wide-field telescopes enables the early detection of 2024 PT5 and other near-Earth objects, showcasing advances in automated sky surveys for planetary defense.

X-ray Crystallography

X-ray crystallography is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of crystals. A crystal diffracts X-rays into specific directions, producing patterns analyzed to reveal electron density maps and thus the 3D structure of molecules. It has been the gold standard for protein structure determination since the early 20th century. The method requires crystallizing the protein, which can be difficult. It provides high-resolution data but is time-consuming and expensive. X-ray crystallography contributed to many Nobel Prizes in Chemistry and Medicine, including discoveries of DNA and many enzymes.

Why in news?

AlphaFold2 matched the accuracy of traditional X-ray crystallography in predicting protein structures, marking a major advance in structural biology.

Xanomeline

Xanomeline is a selective muscarinic receptor agonist primarily targeting M1 and M4 receptors in the brain. It modulates dopamine neurotransmission, which is implicated in schizophrenia symptoms. Originally studied for Alzheimer’s disease, xanomeline showed cognitive benefits but caused peripheral side effects like nausea. Its central action improves cognitive and psychotic symptoms without direct dopamine receptor blockade. The drugs inability to cross the blood-brain barrier selectively led to the development of combination therapies to limit peripheral effects. Xanomelines unique receptor profile distinguishes it from typical antipsychotics that mainly target dopamine receptors.

Why in news?

Xanomeline is part of the newly FDA-approved drug Cobenfy, used to treat schizophrenia by targeting muscarinic receptors with fewer side effects than traditional antipsychotics.

International Relations & Organizations

International Relations & Organizations

India’s Act East Policy

Indias Act East Policy was launched in 2014 to enhance economic, strategic, and cultural relations with the Asia-Pacific region, particularly Southeast Asia. It evolved from the earlier Look East Policy initiated in the 1990s. The policy focuses on strengthening connectivity, trade, maritime security, and people-to-people ties. It prioritizes cooperation with ASEAN countries and partners like Japan, Australia, and the United States. Act East Policy supports Indias strategic interests in the Indo-Pacific, including countering regional threats and encouraging development partnerships. It also promotes infrastructure projects such as the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.

Why in news?

Indias Act East Policy was brought into light alongside IPOI at the 19th East Asia Summit to demonstrate Indias integrated approach to Indo-Pacific engagement.

16th BRICS Summit

The 16th BRICS Summit was held in Kazan, Russia, in 2024. It was the first summit after the blocs expansion to include five new members, including Ethiopia. The summit focused on enhancing cooperation among member states in trade, technology, and sustainable development. It discussed reforms in global governance institutions and sought to increase the influence of the Global South in international affairs. The summit also emphasized economic diversification and strategic partnerships to counterbalance Western dominance in global politics. Key agreements included collaboration on infrastructure funding and regional security initiatives.

Why in news?

The 16th BRICS Summit marked Ethiopias official induction into the group, reflecting the blocs expanded membership and renewed focus on global south cooperation. BRICS group now includes 10 member countries viz. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) was established in 2016 with headquarters in Beijing. It supports infrastructure development across Asia, focusing on sustainable infrastructure and regional connectivity. AIIB has over 100 member countries worldwide. It finances projects in sectors like energy, transport, urban development, and water supply. The bank provides loans, equity investments, and guarantees. Its governance includes a Board of Governors and Board of Directors, with voting power linked to members’ capital contributions. AIIB often co-finances projects with other financial institutions to maximize development impact.

Why in news?

AIIB is involved in financing the Chennai Metro Rail Project Phase 2, with loan agreements currently being renegotiated to channel funds via the Central Government.

Global Centre for Security Policy

The Global Centre for Security Policy is a Geneva-based think tank specializing in international security, including geopolitical conflicts and economic security. It hosts conferences and briefings that gather diplomats, policymakers, and experts worldwide. The center emphasizes emerging threats such as cyber warfare, terrorism, and great power rivalries. It publishes research on security policy trends and encourages cooperation between states and international organizations. Despite its role in shaping security discourse within multilateral forums, it remains relatively unknown outside diplomatic circles. Its work influences global peace, defense, and economic relations.

Why in news?

External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar addressed the center in September 2024, discussing India-China economic relations, denoting trade imbalances and strategic concerns over Chinas market access in India.

Global Digital Compact (GDC)

The Global Digital Compact (GDC) is a non-binding diplomatic framework adopted by the United Nations to promote cooperation in digital technology governance. It emphasizes digital public goods, equitable data governance, and closing the digital divide globally. The GDC proposes creating an Independent International Scientific Panel on AI and a Global Dialogue on AI Governance to oversee AI development and ethical use. It is grounded in international law, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the UN 2030 Agenda. The compact supports responsible technology use aligned with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Why in news?

Adopted at the October 2024 UN Summit of the Future, the GDC establishes a global framework for digital governance amid rapid AI advancements and digital transformation challenges.

Global Partnership on AI (GPAI)

The Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) was launched in 2020 to encourage international cooperation on AI development and governance. It includes over 25 member countries, involving governments, academia, industry, and civil society. GPAI focuses on responsible AI use, data governance, AI trustworthiness, and innovation. It operates through expert working groups that share research and best practices globally. The partnership promotes inclusive AI adoption and ethical standards. GPAI aims to address societal impacts of AI by shaping policy frameworks and encouraging multi-stakeholder collaboration.

Why in news?

India hosted the 2023 GPAI annual meeting, denoting its growing role in AI governance and international AI collaboration.

ICAO Aviation Security Manual (Doc 8973)

The ICAO Aviation Security Manual, known as Doc 8973, complements Annex 17 by providing detailed guidance on implementing aviation security measures. It includes best practices for threat assessment, passenger and baggage screening, and airport security management. The manual is periodically revised to reflect evolving security challenges and technologies. Doc 8973 serves as a practical reference for states to develop or enhance their national aviation security programs in line with ICAO SARPs. It is not legally binding but strongly influences global aviation security policies.

Why in news?

Doc 8973 was referenced alongside Annex 17 in Indias efforts to strengthen aviation security protocols after hoax threats targeted flights, emphasizing adherence to ICAO guidance.

India-China Line of Actual Control (LAC)

The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the de facto border between India and China, spanning about 4,057 kilometers. It is not a formally agreed boundary but a practical control line established after the 1962 Sino-Indian War. The LAC is divided into three sectors – western, middle, and eastern; Pangong Tso lies in the western sector. Due to ambiguous demarcation, frequent patrol face-offs and standoffs occur. The LAC is characterized by rugged terrain, high altitudes, and harsh climatic conditions, complicating military logistics and surveillance.

Why in news?

Recent agreements between India and China focus on reducing tensions and restoring patrolling rights along disputed LAC sectors, including the Pangong Tso area.

Indian Register of Shipping (IRS)

The Indian Register of Shipping (IRS) is a classification society established in 1975, responsible for assessing and certifying the safety, design, and construction of ships and offshore structures. It operates globally with offices in over 20 countries. IRS provides certification based on international maritime standards but does not regulate cargo legality. It is recognized by the Government of India and several international maritime organizations. IRS has expanded its role amid geopolitical shifts, especially with vessels switching classification from Russian registries to IRS to avoid sanctions. It primarily certifies ship structure, machinery, and safety systems, not ownership or cargo details.

Why in news?

IRS is in the spotlight for certifying ships linked to Russian oil shipments circumventing sanctions, denoting its increased involvement in global shipping amid geopolitical tensions.

Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)

The Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative was launched by India in 2019 to promote a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based maritime order in the Indo-Pacific region. It emphasizes sustainable ocean governance, marine resources conservation, capacity building, and disaster risk reduction. IPOI aligns with ASEANs Outlook on the Indo-Pacific and supports Indias Act East Policy and Quad cooperation. It promotes cooperation in marine science, the blue economy, and maritime security, focusing on development-based approaches instead of expansionism to ensure regional peace and prosperity.

Why in news?

The Prime Minister of India brought into light IPOI at the 19th East Asia Summit, emphasizing its role in regional cooperation and alignment with ASEANs Indo-Pacific Outlook.

International Energy Efficiency Hub

The International Energy Efficiency Hub is a collaborative platform involving multiple countries aimed at accelerating global energy efficiency improvements. It facilitates technology transfer, policy coordination, and capacity building among member nations. India joined the Hub to share expertise and adopt best practices in energy conservation. The Hub supports research on energy-efficient technologies and promotes uniform standards across borders. It also encourages private sector participation and investment in energy efficiency projects. The Hub operates under the aegis of international energy organizations and aligns with global climate change mitigation goals.

Why in news?

India, through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, has been designated as the implementing agency for its participation in this international initiative.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

International Humanitarian Law governs the conduct of armed conflict, aiming to protect persons who are not or no longer participating in hostilities, including humanitarian aid workers. It includes the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, which mandate the protection of civilians and aid personnel. IHL prohibits attacks on medical units and humanitarian convoys. Despite legal protections, enforcement is challenging due to non-state actors and complex conflict dynamics. Violations often go unpunished, undermining aid delivery. IHL also regulates the use of certain weapons and mandates humane treatment of detainees. It forms the legal basis for humanitarian operations in war zones.

Why in news?

Aid workers in Gaza operate under International Humanitarian Law but face risks due to violations, complicating efforts to protect them amid escalating conflict and violence.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialized United Nations agency established in 1948 to regulate shipping. It develops and maintains a comprehensive framework of global maritime safety, security, and environmental standards, including conventions like SOLAS and MARPOL. Membership is open to sovereign states; Eswatini is not a member, which limits its adherence to IMO regulations. The IMO also oversees the prevention of maritime pollution and the facilitation of international shipping. Its regulations are enforced through member states and flag registries, but flags of convenience often exploit gaps in IMO enforcement due to lax oversight.

Why in news?

Eswatinis non-membership in the IMO has made its flag attractive for ships seeking to avoid stringent international maritime regulations amid the Russia-Ukraine conflict sanctions enforcement challenges.

Kartarpur Corridor

The Kartarpur Corridor is a visa-free border crossing and pilgrimage corridor connecting the Dera Baba Nanak shrine in Indias Punjab to the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Pakistan. It allows Sikh pilgrims from India to visit the shrine without a visa, facilitating cross-border religious tourism. The corridor spans approximately 4.7 kilometers and was inaugurated in 2019. It is the first such corridor between India and Pakistan since their partition in 1947 and is considered confidence-building measure between the two countries.

Why in news?

The Kartarpur Corridor agreement was renewed in 2024, ensuring uninterrupted access for Sikh devotees from India to visit the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur.

Look East Policy

The Look East Policy was initiated by India in the early 1990s to improve economic and strategic relations with Southeast Asia. It laid the groundwork for the Act East Policy by focusing on trade, investment, and cultural exchange. The policy was largely reactive, aiming to open new markets and counterbalance regional influences. It prioritized ASEAN countries and was in expanding Indias diplomatic reach. The policy also emphasized connectivity projects like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway. It was a key factor in Indias gradual pivot towards the Asia-Pacific region before the more assertive Act East Policy replaced it.

Why in news?

The Look East Policy is referenced in discussions about the evolution of Indias diplomatic strategy toward Southeast Asia, marking its transition to the more dynamic Act East Policy on its tenth anniversary.

Maldives-India Diplomatic Row 2024

The Maldives-India diplomatic row in early 2024 was triggered by public derogatory comments from Maldivian ministers towards Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi. The incident followed the rise of the India Out campaign in Maldives, which criticized Indias influence. The row led to strained bilateral relations, impacting tourism and trade. EaseMyTrip, a major Indian travel company, suspended all Maldives bookings indefinitely. The dispute was resolved by October 2024 after diplomatic efforts, restoring normalcy in travel and cooperation. The episode brought into light the sensitivity of regional geopolitics on business and tourism between neighboring countries.

Why in news?

The 2024 diplomatic row caused a temporary halt in travel bookings to the Maldives by Indian companies, including EaseMyTrip, affecting bilateral tourism.

Microsoft 2024 Digital Defence Report

The Microsoft 2024 Digital Defence Report analyzes global cyber threats, focusing on state-sponsored cyberattacks and influence operations. It marks emerging trends in hybrid warfare combining cyber and information tactics. The report details specific campaigns, including Irans shift from US-targeted cyber activities to influence operations against Israel post-Hamas attack. It provides data on attack vectors, affected sectors, and mitigation strategies. Microsoft collaborates with governments and tech companies to improve detection and response. The report is a key resource for policymakers and cybersecurity professionals tracking evolving digital threats.

Why in news?

The report reveals Irans escalated cyber-enabled influence operations targeting Israel, marking a strategic pivot in its cyber activities documented through 2024.

Multilateral Oversight in AI

Multilateral oversight refers to governance involving multiple countries or organizations cooperating to regulate AI technologies. It contrasts with unilateral or bilateral approaches, aiming to create consistent global standards. Multilateral oversight addresses challenges like cross-border data flows, AI ethics, and security risks by pooling expertise and resources. It helps prevent regulatory arbitrage, where companies exploit lax rules in certain countries. This approach supports equitable technology access and safeguards fundamental rights internationally. Multilateral oversight mechanisms often involve international bodies, treaties, or panels, such as the proposed Independent International Scientific Panel on AI.

Why in news?

Multilateral oversight was emphasized during the 2024 UN summit as essential for managing AIs global impact and ensuring cooperation beyond national self-regulation efforts.

Myanmar Military Junta

The Myanmar military junta, known as the State Administration Council (SAC), seized power in February 2021, overthrowing the elected government. The junta is led by Senior General Min Aung Hlaing. It has faced widespread international condemnation for human rights abuses and violent crackdowns on protests. The junta controls key state institutions and has resisted ASEANs peace plans, including the Five-Step Roadmap. It announced elections in 2024, which many see as a move to legitimize its rule. The militarys dominance in Myanmar dates back to 1962, with intermittent civilian rule interrupted by coups.

Why in news?

The juntas push for elections under the ASEAN roadmap continues despite ongoing violence and lack of peace progress.

Nihon Hidankyo

Nihon Hidankyo is a Japanese organization representing Hibakusha, the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Founded in 1956, it advocates for peace, nuclear disarmament, and the rights of bomb survivors. The group provides support and raises awareness about the long-term effects of radiation exposure. Nihon Hidankyo has played a key role in international campaigns against nuclear weapons and has influenced global nuclear policies. It maintains a network of Hibakusha members and descendants, promoting their stories to prevent nuclear warfare.

Why in news?

Nihon Hidankyo was awarded the 2024 Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts in advocating for nuclear disarmament through Hibakusha testimonies.

Nijjar Murder Case

The Nijjar murder case involves the killing of Sarabjit Singh Nijjar, a Canadian citizen and Sikh leader, in Surrey, British Columbia. The case has drawn international attention due to allegations of foreign government involvement. The investigation is complex, involving multiple accused individuals and diplomatic tensions between Canada and India. The case marks issues of extraterritorial influence, espionage, and political violence. It has led to increased scrutiny of diplomatic relations and security protocols for diaspora communities in Canada. The trial proceedings have been repeatedly adjourned in the B.C. Provincial Court.

Why in news?

The Nijjar murder case remains under judicial review in the B.C. Provincial Court, with multiple adjournments as the investigation and trial preparations continue.

No Limits Partnership

The No Limits Partnership is a diplomatic and strategic agreement between Russia and China, announced in February 2022. It commits both countries to unrestricted cooperation across political, military, economic, and technological fields. The partnership explicitly opposes Western influence and sanctions and aims to counterbalance US and NATO dominance. It includes joint military drills, intelligence sharing, and coordinated foreign policy. Unlike previous alliances, it explicitly rejects any limits on bilateral cooperation. The agreement symbolizes a major shift in global alliances and reflects growing Sino-Russian alignment in the face of Western pressure.

Why in news?

The partnership underpins intensified military cooperation in 2024, including joint patrols and exercises between Russia and China amid rising geopolitical tensions.

Non-Use of Nuclear Weapons in Modern Peace Plans

The principle of non-use of nuclear weapons is increasingly emphasized in contemporary peace initiatives, including the 2024 Friends for Peace plan. This concept prohibits deploying nuclear arms or attacking nuclear facilities during conflicts. It builds on international treaties like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and humanitarian law protecting nuclear sites. The focus on nuclear non-use reflects global concerns about escalation risks in conflicts such as Ukraine. Peace plans now often include explicit clauses to prevent nuclear warfare, aiming to reduce catastrophic humanitarian and environmental consequences.

Why in news?

The Friends for Peace coalitions 2024 peace plan for Ukraine prominently features a commitment to the non-use of nuclear weapons and protection of nuclear facilities, addressing fears of nuclear escalation in the ongoing conflict.

Nuclear Taboo

The nuclear taboo refers to the normative prohibition against the use of nuclear weapons, established after World War II. It is based on the widespread perception of nuclear weapons as morally unacceptable due to their catastrophic humanitarian consequences. The taboo has influenced states behavior, deterring nuclear weapon use despite ongoing proliferation. Hibakusha testimonies and advocacy have been central to reinforcing this norm. The taboo is a key concept in international relations and arms control, shaping treaties like the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. It remains fragile but influential in global security discourse.

Why in news?

The nuclear taboo was emphasized in 2024 discussions on nuclear disarmament following the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Nihon Hidankyo and Hibakusha survivors.

Outer Space Treaty

The Outer Space Treaty was adopted by the United Nations in 1967 and serves as the foundational framework for international space law. It prohibits placing nuclear weapons or any weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies. The treaty declares space exploration shall benefit all countries and forbids national sovereignty claims on the Moon or other celestial bodies. It mandates that space activities be conducted for peaceful purposes and holds countries responsible for national space activities, whether governmental or non-governmental. The treaty remains the primary legal instrument governing space activities globally.

Why in news?

The Artemis Accords emphasize adherence to the Outer Space Treaty as part of their principles, reinforcing international legal norms amid expanding lunar exploration efforts.

Questionnaires on Foreign Ties

Since 2022, Chinese authorities have used questionnaires distributed by groups like the CYL to collect detailed information about citizens’ foreign connections, including relatives abroad, overseas education, and travel history. These surveys aim to map personal networks and identify potential security risks. The data collection is part of a broader government strategy to monitor foreign influence and control cross-border interactions. The questionnaires often require disclosure of sensitive personal information and have raised concerns about privacy and increased surveillance. This method supplements other intelligence and security measures implemented by the Chinese state.

Why in news?

The governments intensified data collection on foreign ties uses questionnaires distributed by the CYL, reflecting increased efforts to monitor and restrict overseas connections amid espionage fears.

Red Sea Maritime Conflict

The Red Sea maritime conflict involves attacks on commercial shipping and naval vessels, primarily linked to the Yemeni Civil War. The Houthis have targeted oil tankers and cargo ships using drones, missiles, and naval mines in strategic waterways like the Bab el-Mandeb Strait. This area connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden and the Suez Canal, a vital global shipping route. The conflict has drawn in international navies, including the U.S. Navy, to protect maritime traffic. These attacks have disrupted global oil supply chains and increased insurance costs for shipping companies operating in the region.

Why in news?

The conflict escalated with increased Houthi attacks on commercial shipping, prompting expanded U.S. naval operations and military spending since late 2023.

Red Sea Maritime Corridor

The Red Sea maritime corridor is a strategic shipping route connecting the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean through the Bab el-Mandeb Strait. It handles approximately 12% of global maritime trade, including portion of oil and liquefied natural gas shipments. The corridor is vital for energy exports from the Middle East to Europe, Asia, and the Americas. The narrow Bab el-Mandeb Strait, just 20 miles wide at its narrowest, is a chokepoint vulnerable to piracy, military conflict, and blockades, affecting global energy prices and supply chains.

Why in news?

The Red Sea corridor is threatened by Houthi attacks on commercial and military vessels, disrupting international shipping and energy supply routes.

Reparations for Slavery in Commonwealth Discussions

Reparations for slavery refer to compensation or restitution for the historic injustices and economic harm caused by the transatlantic slave trade. Within the Commonwealth, this issue has gained renewed attention as many member states were directly affected by slaverys legacy. Discussions include calls for formal apologies, financial compensation, and development aid to formerly enslaved peoples descendants. The UK, a former colonial power, has historically opposed reparations language in official Commonwealth documents. The 2024 CHOGM includes this topic in its agenda, reflecting growing pressure from African and Caribbean member states for recognition and redress.

Why in news?

The 2024 CHOGM agenda features reparations for slavery, denoting tensions as the UK resists including reparations language in the summit communiqué.

Rio Branco Institute

The Rio Branco Institute is Brazil’s diplomatic academy, established in 1945, named after the Baron of Rio Branco, a key figure in Brazilian diplomacy. It offers rigorous training for diplomats, focusing on international relations, law, economics, and languages. The institute is responsible for preparing candidates for the Brazilian diplomatic service through a highly competitive exam. It also conducts research and promotes discussions on foreign policy. The building is located in Brasília and serves as a symbol of Brazil’s diplomatic tradition. Alumni include many prominent Brazilian diplomats and politicians who shaped the country’s foreign policy.

Why in news?

Celso Amorim, a graduate of the Rio Branco Institute, is currently a special presidential adviser on international affairs and recently commented on Brazil’s stance toward the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Samoa as a Commonwealth Host

Samoa, an island nation in the South Pacific, is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1970. It is the first Pacific island country to host CHOGM in 2024. Samoas hosting marks moment for small island developing states within the Commonwealth. The countrys political system blends traditional chiefly governance with a parliamentary democracy. Samoa faces challenges linked to climate change and economic development, common issues for Pacific nations. Hosting CHOGM provides Samoa with a platform to show regional concerns and strengthen diplomatic ties.

Why in news?

Samoa is hosting the 2024 CHOGM, spotlighting Pacific island issues and climate change at this major Commonwealth summit.

Shadow Fleet

The shadow fleet refers to a group of vessels that operate under obscure ownership and flagging arrangements to avoid sanctions or regulatory oversight. These ships often switch flags, classification societies, and ownership to obscure their activities, especially in sanction-affected trades like Russian oil exports. The shadow fleet uses complex legal and operational tactics such as flag-hopping (changing country of registration) and reclassification to continue operations covertly. This fleet is estimated to include hundreds of tankers and cargo vessels globally, complicating enforcement of international trade restrictions.

Why in news?

The shadow fleet is referenced due to vessels linked to Russian oil shipments switching classification to IRS, raising concerns about sanction circumvention.

Soft Power Diplomacy through Cultural Exports

Soft power diplomacy refers to influencing other countries through cultural appeal rather than military or economic force. South Korea uses its cultural exports, including K-pop, films, and cuisine, to enhance its global image and political influence. This strategy has increased South Koreas diplomatic leverage and encourageed international goodwill. Cultural events, festivals, and government support for entertainment industries are part of this approach. The success of Hallyu has translated into stronger bilateral ties and tourism growth, making cultural diplomacy a vital component of South Koreas foreign policy since the early 2000s.

Why in news?

Soft power diplomacy is mentioned as outcome of the Hallyu phenomenon, linking cultural success to South Koreas international influence.

South China Sea Geopolitical Hotspots

The South China Sea is a critical maritime region bordered by multiple countries including China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. It contains vital shipping lanes, abundant fisheries, and potential energy resources. Several islands and reefs in the sea are disputed, leading to frequent diplomatic and military standoffs. The area is governed by overlapping territorial claims and international law, especially the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Military installations, artificial island-building, and patrols have increased tensions. The South China Sea is a focal point of global strategic competition, involving regional powers and external countries like the U.S.

Why in news?

Chatham Houses recent reports focus on escalating military developments and strategic maneuvering in the South China Sea, denoting the regions ongoing conflicts and security challenges.

South-South Cooperation

South-South cooperation refers to the exchange of resources, technology, and knowledge between developing countries, primarily located in the Global South. It aims to promote economic growth, sustainable development, and political solidarity without reliance on developed countries. The concept gained prominence in the 1970s and is institutionalized by organizations like the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. It includes initiatives in trade, investment, health, education, and climate action. South-South cooperation often emphasizes mutual benefit and respect for sovereignty, differing from traditional North-South aid models. It has been a mainstay of Brazil’s foreign policy under leaders like Celso Amorim.

Why in news?

Celso Amorim emphasized South-South cooperation as a key principle in Brazil’s foreign policy during the Lula administration and continues to advocate for it in current diplomatic strategies.

Stimson Center

The Stimson Center is a Washington, D.C.-based nonpartisan think tank founded in 1989. Named after former U.S. Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson, it focuses on global security issues including nuclear nonproliferation, conflict resolution, and arms control. The center conducts research, policy analysis, and advocacy on international security and peacebuilding. It runs programs on Asia-Pacific security, disarmament, and humanitarian issues. The Stimson Center is known for its open-source intelligence projects like 38 North, combining academic rigor with practical policy recommendations. It frequently collaborates with governments, international organizations, and academia.

Why in news?

The Stimson Center operates the 38 North platform, which recently provided critical analysis of North Koreas nuclear activities and diplomatic developments.

Strasbourg, France

Strasbourg is a city in northeastern France on the border with Germany, serving as the official seat of the Council of Europe and the European Parliament. Known for its historic city center, Grande Île, a UNESCO World Heritage site, Strasbourg symbolizes European unity and reconciliation after World War II. The city hosts major European institutions focused on human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. Strasbourgs role as a political and cultural hub reflects its history as a contested territory between France and Germany. It is also famous for its Gothic cathedral and vibrant Christmas markets.

Why in news?

The Council of Europe Human Rights Prize is awarded annually at the Council of Europe headquarters in Strasbourg, emphasizing the citys role in European human rights advocacy.

Switzerlands Observer Role in International Peace Coalitions

Switzerland often participates as an observer in international peace coalitions, maintaining neutrality while endorsing diplomatic efforts. Its observer status allows it to support initiatives without formal membership, preserving its longstanding policy of neutrality. Switzerlands endorsement of the Friends for Peace plan in 2024 was notable because it diverged from typical Western alignments. The countrys involvement includes facilitating humanitarian aid and promoting dialogue, especially in conflicts involving nuclear risks. Switzerlands diplomatic tradition dates back to the 19th century and it hosts many UN agencies, underscoring its role as a mediator and humanitarian actor.

Why in news?

Switzerland endorsed the Friends for Peace coalition’s Ukraine peace plan as an observer during the 2024 UNGA, drawing attention due to its neutral stance and the criticism from Ukraine.

The 16th BRICS Summit

The 16th BRICS Summit, held in 2024, focused on strengthening economic ties, technological cooperation, and political dialogue among member states. Indias role was , emphasizing digital economy initiatives and sustainable development. The summit addressed tensions between China and India, seeking diplomatic solutions to maintain bloc unity. Discussions included expanding trade, investment in green technologies, and enhancing the New Development Banks capacity. The summit reiterated BRICS commitment to multilateralism and counterbalancing Western economic dominance, promoting a multipolar global order.

Why in news?

The 16th BRICS Summit was recently held, renewing commitments to economic collaboration and managing intra-bloc geopolitical challenges, especially between India and China.

Voluntary Contributions

Voluntary contributions to WHO come from member states, private organizations, and philanthropic entities. These funds are often earmarked for specific projects or health emergencies, limiting their flexibility. In 2023, voluntary contributions accounted for over 80% of WHOs budget, leading to concerns about donor influence on priorities. Major donors include the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the GAVI Alliance. Voluntary funding enables rapid response to emerging health crises but complicates long-term planning. WHO has been working to increase unearmarked voluntary funds to balance donor interests with organizational needs.

Why in news?

Voluntary contributions remain a critical but controversial part of WHOs funding, prompting discussions at recent funding pledges events about balancing donor-driven projects with core budget needs.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

The World Meteorological Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1950, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It coordinates global meteorological, hydrological, and climate data collection and exchange among 193 member states. The WMO sets international standards for weather forecasting, climate monitoring, and disaster risk reduction. It also facilitates early warning systems for extreme weather events, including droughts. The WMO played a key role in the 2013 High-Level Meeting on National Drought Policy, promoting science-based drought risk management globally.

Why in news?

The WMO co-hosted the 2013 High-Level Meeting on National Drought Policy, which is now commemorated by the DR+10 Conference on drought resilience.

Social Development & Government Schemes

Social Development & Government Schemes

Smoke-Free Task Force, Balanga City

The Smoke-Free Task Force was established by Balanga City to enforce the smoke-free policy. It is responsible for monitoring compliance, conducting inspections, and supporting public awareness campaigns. The task force collaborates with local government units, health agencies, and community organizations. It has the authority to issue fines and penalties for violations of the tobacco ban. The task force’s creation was essential to the policy’s effectiveness, combining enforcement with education to reduce tobacco use in public spaces and limit tobacco product accessibility.

Why in news?

The Smoke-Free Task Force plays a critical role in enforcing Balanga City’s tobacco control measures, contributing to public health improvements.

Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

The Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) is a digital platform launched under Indias National Education Policy 2020. It enables students to accumulate, store, and transfer academic credits earned from different universities and courses across the country. Managed by the University Grants Commission, ABC supports multidisciplinary learning and lifelong education by allowing flexible credit mobility. It standardizes credit evaluation and promotes skill diversification by breaking traditional rigid academic frameworks. The system ensures transparency and security in credit transactions, facilitating easier recognition of learning achievements and enhancing student flexibility in career planning and academic progression.

Why in news?

UGC leadership guidelines show faculty preparedness for new educational frameworks, including the implementation of the Academic Bank of Credits to support flexible, multidisciplinary learning paths.

Atal Innovation Mission (AIM)

The Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) is a flagship initiative under the NITI Aayog, established to promote a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship in India. AIM supports the creation of Atal Tinkering Labs in schools, Atal Incubation Centers, and various innovation challenges across sectors including defence. It collaborates with government bodies, industry, and academia to nurture startups and MSMEs. AIMs partnership with DISC integrates defence innovation into its broader mission, providing startups with access to funding, mentorship, and market linkages. AIM plays a key role in building a national innovation ecosystem aligned with government priorities.

Why in news?

AIM is partnering with DISC in its 12th edition to promote defence technology innovations by supporting startups and MSMEs with funding and development opportunities.

CGHS (Central Government Health Scheme)

The Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS) was launched in 1954 to provide comprehensive healthcare to Central Government employees and pensioners in India. It offers outpatient and inpatient services via dispensaries and empaneled hospitals in major cities. CGHS beneficiaries receive free or subsidized medical treatment, medicines, and diagnostics. It operates primarily in urban areas and excludes rural coverage. Unlike AB-PMJAY, CGHS is income-based and only available to government employees and retirees, not the general public. Beneficiaries under CGHS cannot simultaneously avail AB-PMJAY benefits, requiring a choice between the two schemes.

Why in news?

CGHS beneficiaries must now choose between their existing coverage and the expanded AB-PMJAY benefits for senior citizens aged 70+ announced in October 2024.

Global Ministerial Conference on Ending Violence Against Children

The Global Ministerial Conference on Ending Violence Against Children is the first international high-level event dedicated exclusively to preventing violence against children. Scheduled for November 2024 in Colombia, it gathers ministers from various countries, UN agencies, civil society organizations, and experts. The conference focuses on sharing best practices, strengthening child protection laws, improving data collection on violence, and enhancing support services for survivors. It aims to accelerate progress toward Sustainable Development Goals related to child safety. This event marks a coordinated global effort to address violence against children through political commitment and policy innovation.

Why in news?

The conference is in the spotlight due to the 2024 UNICEF report denoting the widespread issue of childhood sexual violence, emphasizing the need for urgent global cooperation.

Grassroots Activism in Anti-Racism Movements

Grassroots activism involves community-driven efforts to address systemic racism and social injustice at the local level. It often includes organizing protests, educational programs, and advocacy campaigns led by affected communities. This form of activism relies on local knowledge and participation, building power from the bottom up rather than top-down policy changes. Grassroots movements have been very important in civil rights advancements globally, influencing legislation and public opinion. They emphasize intersectionality, addressing overlapping identities such as race, ethnicity, caste, and class. International awards like the Global Anti-Racism Championship show and support these local efforts on a global stage.

Why in news?

The Global Anti-Racism Championship Award recognizes grassroots activism as a critical force in combating systemic racism worldwide.

India-Maldives Jan Aushadhi Kendras

The India-Maldives Jan Aushadhi Kendras are proposed retail outlets in Maldives modeled after Indias Jan Aushadhi scheme, which began in 2008. These centers focus on selling generic medicines at lower prices than branded drugs, ensuring affordable healthcare. The Indian Pharmacopoeia, a compendium of drug standards, has been officially recognized by Maldives to facilitate this initiative. The Kendras will enhance health security by improving availability of essential medicines and reducing dependency on costly imports. This marks a bilateral collaboration to address healthcare challenges in Maldives through sustainable pharmaceutical access.

Why in news?

India and Maldives agreed in October 2024 to set up Jan Aushadhi Kendras in Maldives to provide affordable generic medicines and strengthen bilateral health cooperation.

Indian Chamber of Food and Agriculture (ICFA)

The Indian Chamber of Food and Agriculture (ICFA) is a national-level organization dedicated to promoting sustainable agriculture and food security in India. It acts as a platform for dialogue among farmers, policymakers, researchers, and agribusinesses. ICFA influences agricultural policy, supports innovation in food systems, and organizes conferences and workshops to facilitate knowledge exchange. It emphasizes digital agriculture and rural development, aiming to integrate traditional farming with modern agri-tech. The chamber also works on initiatives that improve farmers’ livelihoods and promote sustainability throughout India’s agricultural sector.

Why in news?

ICFA co-organized the India Digital Agri Conference 2024, denoting its role in advancing digital agriculture and encouraging innovation in Indian farming practices.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 and functions as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. ICAR coordinates agricultural education, research, and extension activities across India through a network of 75 institutes and 71 agricultural universities. It plays a key role in developing crop varieties, livestock breeds, and sustainable farming technologies. ICAR also collects and analyzes data on environmental issues such as stubble burning and soil health. It supports policy formulation by providing scientific evidence and facilitates training programs for farmers and researchers nationwide.

Why in news?

ICAR reported a 29% reduction in stubble burning incidents in Haryana in 2024, denoting the effectiveness of government agricultural schemes.

Indian Institute of Skills (IIS)

The Indian Institute of Skills (IIS) is a skill development institute launched under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model between the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship and Tata IIS, a section 8 company under Tata Trusts. It focuses on Industry 4.0 technologies including advanced industrial automation, robotics, additive manufacturing, and electric vehicle battery specialization. IIS collaborates with over 15 global and Indian original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to provide hands-on training. It also offers short-term courses in partnership with companies like Fanuc India and Taj Skyline, with plans to expand hostel facilities for students.

Why in news?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the IIS in Mumbai to promote skill development in emerging Industry 4.0 technologies, aiming to position India as the “Skill Capital of the World.”

Integration of Traditional Medicine Systems in Primary Healthcare

Traditional Indian medicine systems like Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha have been officially integrated into Indias public health system under the Ministry of AYUSH. These systems use herbal remedies, dietary regulation, and lifestyle therapies for disease prevention and health promotion. Integration aims to complement allopathic treatments, especially in chronic disease management. Research on efficacy and safety is ongoing, with some therapies recognized by the WHO. The integration promotes holistic care, emphasizing balance of body, mind, and environment. Training of healthcare workers in traditional medicine principles is part of the integration effort.

Why in news?

The HWC initiative promotes integration of Ayurveda and Unani systems alongside allopathic care to enhance preventive and promotive health services in India.

Kamlari System

The Kamlari system was a form of bonded labor in Nepal where young girls, mostly from the Tharu ethnic group, were sold into domestic servitude. This system was legally banned in 2000, but illegal practices persisted for years. Kamlaris often faced physical and sexual abuse, deprivation of education, and poor living conditions. The system was deeply intertwined with Nepals caste and ethnic hierarchies. Rehabilitation efforts include financial compensation and social reintegration programs. The Kamlari issue gained international attention due to campaigns led by human rights organizations and survivor advocacy groups like the Freed Kamlari Development Forum.

Why in news?

The legacy of the Kamlari system remains a focus of advocacy and rehabilitation efforts led by activists and organizations supporting former bonded laborers.

Karbi People

The Karbi are an indigenous hill tribe primarily residing in the Karbi Anglong district of Assam. They speak the Karbi language, part of the Austroasiatic family, and maintain a unique cultural heritage with animistic religious practices alongside Hindu influences. The Karbi society is organized into clans, with traditional governance systems like the Karbi Council. They have faced land conflicts due to migration and unclear land tenure systems. The Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council was established to provide self-governance and address socio-political issues, including land rights. Their livelihood depends largely on shifting cultivation, handicrafts, and forest resources.

Why in news?

The Karbi community is included in Assams Mission Basundhara initiative, which aims to formalize land ownership and protect indigenous land rights.

Karnataka Acceleration Network (KAN)

The Karnataka Acceleration Network (KAN) is a collaborative platform launched to connect start-ups, investors, mentors, and incubators within Karnataka. It facilitates networking, knowledge sharing, and resource access to accelerate start-up growth. KAN supports ecosystem building by organizing events, workshops, and funding opportunities. It acts as a bridge between government schemes like ELEVATE 2024 and private sector stakeholders. KAN aims to create a cohesive environment for innovation, enabling early-stage ventures to access expertise and capital more efficiently, thus boosting Karnatakas position as a leading start-up hub in India.

Why in news?

KAN was announced in October 2024 alongside ELEVATE 2024 to strengthen Karnatakas start-up ecosystem by encouraging connections and accelerating growth opportunities for early-stage companies.

Kunbi (OBC) Category in Maharashtra

The Kunbi caste is an agricultural community primarily found in Maharashtra, classified under the Other Backward Classes (OBC) category in some regions. Historically, Kunbis have been small-scale farmers and landowners. The classification of Kunbis as OBC varies by state and region, affecting their eligibility for government reservations in education and employment. The Maratha community has sought inclusion under the Kunbi (OBC) category to gain reservation benefits, sparking political and social debates. This classification influences caste-based quota policies, impacting millions in rural Maharashtra, especially in drought-affected areas where agriculture is the main livelihood.

Why in news?

The Kunbi (OBC) category was central to the 2023 Maratha reservation agitation, with demands to include Marathas under this classification for quota benefits.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is a social security scheme launched in 2005 by the Government of India to provide at least 100 days of wage employment per year to rural households. It aims to enhance livelihood security by creating durable assets and reducing rural poverty. Payments under MGNREGS are now mandated to be made via digital platforms like ABPS to ensure transparency and reduce leakages. The scheme covers all rural districts and involves local governance bodies in implementation. It is the largest work guarantee program globally by number of beneficiaries.

Why in news?

MGNREGS wage payments transitioned to the ABPS platform from January 2024, causing disputes over beneficiary deletions and payment delays.

MERUs (Multi-Disciplinary Education and Research Universities)

MERUs refer to Multi-Disciplinary Education and Research Universities, a concept promoted in some state of Indias to encourage interdisciplinary learning and research. These universities combine various fields such as science, technology, humanities, and social sciences under one umbrella to encourage collaboration and innovation. MERUs aim to break traditional academic silos and enhance research output by integrating diverse disciplines. They often receive special funding and policy support to develop advanced research infrastructure and attract high-quality faculty and students.

Why in news?

The Higher Education Incentive Policy-2024 supports the establishment of MERUs in Uttar Pradesh to boost research and interdisciplinary education.

MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act)

MGNREGA is an Indian labor law and social security measure that guarantees at least 100 days of wage employment annually to rural households. It aims to enhance livelihood security by providing unskilled manual work on public projects. The scheme promotes sustainable rural development, including water conservation, land development, and infrastructure improvement. MGNREGA is demand-driven and legally guarantees employment, with penalties for non-compliance. It is the world’s largest work guarantee program, targeting marginalized communities such as Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Classes. The scheme also encourages transparency through social audits and digital monitoring.

Why in news?

MGNREGA work was halted in Goluwala villages after their reclassification as a municipality, triggering protests and legal action.

MIDH (Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture)

MIDH is an Government of India scheme launched in 2014 to promote holistic development of the horticulture sector. It integrates various programs to improve production, post-harvest management, and marketing of horticultural crops. MIDH supports technology adoption like hydroponics and protected cultivation. It aims to increase farmers’ income, reduce crop losses, and promote exports. The scheme covers fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal plants, and more. It is implemented through state governments and horticulture departments, with financial assistance for infrastructure, training, and research.

Why in news?

Hydroponics has been included as a new component under MIDH to enhance sustainable horticulture practices in India, reflecting government focus on modern farming technologies.

Migrant Families in Rural Punjab

Migrant families from states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar frequently settle in rural Punjab for agricultural labor and seasonal work. These families often face barriers to healthcare access due to language, documentation, and mobility issues. Their transient lifestyle complicates consistent vaccination and health monitoring, increasing vulnerability to vaccine-preventable diseases. Government health programs sometimes struggle to track and immunize these populations effectively. Migrant communities contribute to Punjabs agrarian economy but remain underserved in public health infrastructure, creating pockets of increased disease risk in otherwise stable rural areas.

Why in news?

The presence of migrant families in Basti Aawa complicates immunization efforts amid a suspected diphtheria outbreak, leading to targeted health surveys and vaccination drives.

NAFED (National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd.)

NAFED was established in 1958 as a national-level cooperative marketing federation to promote agricultural marketing and support farmers’ interests. It operates under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation and is involved in the procurement, storage, and distribution of agricultural products. NAFED plays a key role in implementing government schemes like the Price Support Scheme (PSS) and the National Agriculture Market (e-NAM). It also facilitates exports of agricultural commodities. NAFEDs governance includes a Managing Director appointed by the ACC, ensuring alignment with government policies and cooperative principles.

Why in news?

Deepak Agarwals appointment as the regular Managing Director of NAFED was approved by the ACC, denoting its role in managing key agricultural cooperatives.

Nainital Model

The Nainital Model is a localized approach to the BBBP campaign implemented in Uttarakhand. It emphasizes community participation and public space safety for girls, incorporating local governance and law enforcement. The model promotes gender sensitization programs in schools and public offices and uses technology-enabled monitoring of sex ratio and safety incidents. It integrates womens self-help groups to encourage empowerment and economic independence. The model also includes multi-stakeholder coordination involving police, education departments, and NGOs, aiming to create a replicable framework for gender equality and child protection.

Why in news?

The Nainital Model is gaining recognition for its innovative implementation of BBBP principles, focusing on girls safety and empowerment in Uttarakhands public spaces.

National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED)

NAFED is a government-owned cooperative federation established in 1958 to promote agricultural marketing and support farmers. It procures, stores, and distributes agricultural commodities to stabilize prices and supply. NAFED operates buffer stocks of essential goods like onions, pulses, and oilseeds. It uses various transportation modes, including rail and road, to move produce across India. NAFED also implements price support schemes and market intervention operations to protect farmers from price volatility. The federation collaborates with state agencies and Indian Railways to optimize supply chains and has recently expanded its use of bulk rail transport for perishables.

Why in news?

NAFED arranged a bulk rail shipment of 800–840 MT of onions to Chennai in 2024, supporting government efforts to stabilize onion prices.

National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP)

The National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) was launched in India in 1982 to systematically collect data on cancer incidence, mortality, and prevalence. It operates through a network of population-based and hospital-based cancer registries across the country. The NCRP provides crucial epidemiological data for cancer research, policy formulation, and planning cancer control programs. It has contributed to identifying regional variations in cancer patterns and supports the evaluation of cancer prevention and treatment strategies. The program is coordinated by ICMR-NCDIR and is one of the largest cancer data repositories in India.

Why in news?

The NCRP data, managed by ICMR-NCDIR, underpins the recent projections of rising cancer burden in India.

National Health Mission (NHM)

The National Health Mission (NHM), launched in 2013, is an umbrella program by the Government of India to improve healthcare delivery across rural and urban areas. It includes the National Rural Health Mission and the National Urban Health Mission. NHM focuses on strengthening primary healthcare, maternal and child health, and disease control. It also promotes community participation and decentralization of health services. NHM supports specialized programs like AFHCs to address specific population needs. The mission has played a key role in expanding healthcare access, improving infrastructure, and training health workers across Indias diverse regions.

Why in news?

NHM is relevant as it underpins the establishment and functioning of AFHCs, which are part of Indias expanded efforts to improve adolescent health services.

National Learning Week

National Learning Week is an annual event in India aimed at promoting continuous learning and skill development among government employees and citizens. It encourages participation in educational programs, workshops, and digital platforms like iGOT. The week emphasizes the importance of lifelong learning in improving governance and public service delivery. It serves as a platform to showcase government initiatives in capacity building and innovation. The event includes speeches by key officials, recognition of training achievements, and launch of new educational tools or programs. It supports Indias broader goals of digital transformation and workforce modernization.

Why in news?

National Learning Week 2024 was the occasion for Prime Minister Modi to acknowledge the iGOT platforms role in civil service capacity building.

National Policy for Rare Diseases (NPRD), India

The National Policy for Rare Diseases (NPRD) was introduced by the Government of India to address the diagnosis, treatment, and management of rare diseases. It includes provisions for financial assistance up to Rs 50 lakh for eligible patients treated at designated Centers of Excellence. The policy promotes research, capacity building, and access to orphan drugs. It also encourages the establishment of Rare Disease Funds within CoEs to support patient care. NPRD aims to integrate rare disease management into the public health system and improve equity in healthcare access for rare disease patients.

Why in news?

The Delhi High Court directed improvements in funding and implementation of NPRD provisions at CoEs to address gaps in financial support and treatment availability.

National Tracking System for Cadaver Donation

A national tracking system for cadaver donation is a centralized database to monitor body donations across medical institutions. India currently lacks such a system, leading to decentralized management by individual medical colleges. This absence complicates coordination, transparency, and equitable distribution of donated bodies. A tracking system could streamline consent verification, allocation, and utilization of cadavers for education and research. It would also help in policy formation and addressing shortages. Countries with such systems report improved management and increased donation rates, enhancing medical training and research capabilities.

Why in news?

The lack of a national tracking system is brought into light by the management challenges faced by medical colleges receiving donations like that of Sitaram Yechury.

Newborn Hearing Screening Programs

Newborn hearing screening programs are systematic tests conducted shortly after birth to detect hearing impairments early. These programs often use otoacoustic emissions (OAE) or auditory brainstem response (ABR) tests. Early detection enables timely intervention, improving language and cognitive development in affected children. Coverage varies widely worldwide, with many low-income countries lacking universal screening. The programs are typically integrated into national health policies and hospital protocols but require trained personnel and equipment. In Africa, newborn hearing screening remains limited due to resource constraints, affecting early diagnosis and treatment outcomes.

Why in news?

The WHO survey brought into light the limited presence of newborn hearing screening programs in African countries, contributing to delays in identifying and managing hearing loss.

Non-Communicable Disease (NCD) Screenings in India

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) include chronic conditions like diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers. Indias public health policy emphasizes early detection through mass screenings conducted by networks such as Ayushman Arogya Mandir. In 2024, Bihar screened 4.36 crore individuals and Jharkhand 2.12 crore for NCDs. These screenings help identify risk factors before symptoms appear, enabling timely interventions. The effort is part of a national strategy to reduce the growing burden of NCDs, which account for over 60% of deaths in India. Screening programs often integrate digital tools for data collection and quality control.

Why in news?

The latest data on NCD screenings in Bihar and Jharkhand was presented at Medicine Update BJMFCON 2024, denoting the scale and effectiveness of preventive healthcare efforts.

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in India

Non-communicable diseases include chronic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases, and cancers. In India, NCDs account for nearly 60% of all deaths, with a rising prevalence due to lifestyle changes and urbanization. The governments focus on NCDs includes early detection, lifestyle modification, and affordable treatment. Screening for hypertension and diabetes is now routine in primary care settings. The economic burden of NCDs is , with productivity losses and healthcare costs. Prevention involves promoting physical activity, healthy diets, tobacco cessation, and reducing alcohol consumption.

Why in news?

HWCs are being established to strengthen prevention and control of NCDs across India, reflecting the governments response to the increasing health burden these diseases pose.

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in Rural Karnataka

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases have been rising in rural Karnataka due to lifestyle changes and aging populations. These diseases require long-term management and pose challenges due to limited healthcare infrastructure outside urban centers. Karnataka’s health policies increasingly target NCD prevention through awareness, screening, and community health workers. Programs like Griha Arogya aim to decentralize care and improve monitoring of NCDs at the village level. The state’s approach includes integrating traditional and modern medicine to address these chronic conditions effectively.

Why in news?

The launch of Griha Arogya in October 2024 marks Karnatakas intensified focus on managing non-communicable diseases in rural communities.

Non-farm Employment in Rural Economies

Non-farm employment refers to jobs outside traditional agriculture, including manufacturing, services, and trade in rural areas. It diversifies income sources for rural households and reduces dependence on farming. Non-farm jobs often provide better wages and stability but can be less accessible to women due to social norms and discrimination. Increasing womens participation in non-farm employment is linked to improved household welfare and gender equality. Barriers include limited skills, mobility restrictions, and unequal power relations. Programs promoting womens access to non-farm work use gender-transformative methodologies to dismantle these barriers and enhance economic decision-making power.

Why in news?

The FAO report stresses the need to use gender-transformative approaches to enable womens fuller engagement in non-farm employment and economic decision-making roles.

Oil Palm Initiative in Assam

The Oil Palm Initiative in Assam aims to boost local edible oil production through large-scale cultivation of oil palm trees. Assams climate is suitable for oil palm, which yields more oil per hectare than traditional oilseeds. The initiative supports farmers with subsidies, technical training, and infrastructure development. It is part of efforts to reduce India’s dependence on imported edible oils. The government promotes planting oil palm on degraded or fallow lands to increase productivity without affecting food crops. The program also focuses on creating processing units to enhance value addition and local employment.

Why in news?

Assams oil palm project is brought into light as a step toward regional self-sufficiency in edible oil, aligned with the Atmanirbhar Bharat policy framework.

Organized Workforce in India

The organized workforce in India refers to employees working in sectors covered by statutory labor laws and social security schemes like EPFO. It includes government employees, public sector units, and private companies registered under labor regulations. This workforce enjoys benefits such as provident fund, pension, health insurance, and regulated working conditions. Despite Indias large informal sector, the organized workforce is estimated at around 10-15% of total employment. Growth in this sector is crucial for expanding social security coverage and formalizing labor markets.

Why in news?

The recent increase in EPFO membership reflects growth in Indias organized workforce, denoting shifts towards formal employment and improved social security coverage.

Overseas Citizen of India (OCI)

The Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card allows foreign nationals of Indian origin to live and work in India indefinitely without visa restrictions. It was introduced in 2005 to provide a lifelong visa and multiple entry benefits. OCIs cannot vote or hold government jobs but enjoy parity with NRIs in financial, economic, and educational fields. The OCI card must be renewed every 15 years for those below 20 and after 50 years of age. The OCI scheme does not confer Indian citizenship but facilitates easier travel and residence. OCIs must meet residence criteria for Aadhaar under the new 182-day rule.

Why in news?

The 182-day residence rule for Aadhaar enrolment now applies to OCIs, causing application delays and rejections for many OCI cardholders trying to prove residency in India.

PCMA (Prohibition of Child Marriage Act)

The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA) 2006 is an Indian law that prohibits the marriage of girls below 18 and boys below 21. It criminalizes solemnizing, promoting, or conducting child marriages. The Act allows courts to annul child marriages and penalizes offenders with imprisonment or fines. However, PCMA does not explicitly address or prohibit child betrothals, creating a legal gap. The Act also includes provisions for the protection, maintenance, and residence of the child bride or groom. It applies across India, overriding customary and religious laws related to child marriage.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court brought into light the PCMAs limitations, urging Parliament to consider banning child betrothals, which are not covered under the current Act, to prevent forced child marriages.

PM Internship Scheme

The PM Internship Scheme was launched by the Government of India in 2022 to provide students and recent graduates with an opportunity to intern with government ministries and departments. Interns receive a stipend of ₹4,500 per month, transferred directly via DBT to ensure transparency. The scheme aims to expose youth to policymaking and governance processes. Internships last from one to six months and are open to Indian citizens aged 18-25. The scheme uses Aadhaar-based authentication to verify beneficiaries and minimize fraud. It encourages youth participation in public administration and governance.

Why in news?

The PM Internship Scheme is in the news for using the DBT platform to transfer stipends directly to interns, promoting transparency and timely payments.

PM Young Achievers Scholarship Award Scheme for Vibrant India (PM-YASASVI)

PM-YASASVI is a scholarship program launched by the Government of India to support education among marginalized groups, including Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and Denotified Tribes. It provides financial assistance for higher education, skill development, and entrepreneurship. The scheme aims to reduce dropout rates and improve employability. It includes mentorship, career counseling, and access to digital learning resources. PM-YASASVI is part of a broader effort to encourage inclusive growth and socio-economic upliftment for vulnerable communities across India.

Why in news?

PM-YASASVI recently expanded its focus to include Denotified Tribes, denoting efforts to promote educational empowerment and economic inclusion for historically marginalized populations.

PM-JANMAN Program

PM-JANMAN stands for Prime Minister Janjatiya Adhikar Manch, an earlier initiative aimed at tribal empowerment and rights. It focused on ensuring tribal access to welfare schemes, improving education, healthcare, and livelihood opportunities. The program emphasized decentralized governance and community participation through tribal councils. It laid the groundwork for DAJGUA by creating frameworks for multisectoral convergence and outreach. PM-JANMAN also promoted the use of technology and data-driven approaches to monitor tribal development. Its success in improving tribal welfare metrics inspired the larger budget and expanded scope of DAJGUA in 2024.

Why in news?

PM-JANMAN’s success is cited as a foundation for the newly launched Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan, which seeks to scale up tribal development efforts nationwide.

Pooled Procurement in Healthcare

Pooled procurement is a purchasing strategy where multiple buyers combine their demand to negotiate better prices and ensure consistent supply of medical products. This approach reduces costs, improves bargaining power, and mitigates risks associated with fragmented supply chains. In Africa, pooled procurement platforms like AMSP help smaller countries access essential medicines and supplies that might otherwise be unavailable due to limited financial resources or logistical constraints. It also enhances transparency and accountability by centralizing procurement data and processes. Pooled procurement has been used in various global health initiatives, including vaccines and HIV/AIDS medication distribution.

Why in news?

Pooled procurement is central to AMSPs model, which is being promoted under Africa CDCs new framework to enhance health product availability and affordability across African nations.

Pradhan Mantri Gramin Aawas Yojana (PMGAY)

PMGAY is a flagship rural housing scheme launched by the Government of India to provide affordable housing to the rural poor, particularly Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes. It offers financial assistance for constructing pucca (permanent) houses with basic amenities. The scheme promotes sustainable construction using eco-friendly materials and local labor. It aims to eliminate homelessness and improve living conditions in rural India. Eligibility depends on the household’s economic status and geographical location. The program is implemented through state governments and monitored by the Ministry of Rural Development.

Why in news?

Residents of Goluwala villages fear losing access to PMGAY benefits following their merger into an urban municipality.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY)

PMJAY is a government health insurance scheme launched in 2018, providing coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary hospitalization. It targets over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families in India. PMJAY covers more than 1,600 diseases and procedures at empanelled hospitals nationwide. It is the worlds largest government-funded health insurance scheme by population coverage. The scheme is cashless and paperless at the point of service, promoting financial protection against catastrophic health expenses. PMJAY is a flagship program under the Ayushman Bharat initiative, aiming to reduce out-of-pocket expenditure.

Why in news?

PMJAY is referenced as the inpatient care counterpart to AAMs, together forming the backbone of Indias Universal Health Coverage framework.

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)

The Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) is a flagship scheme launched by the Government of India in 2020 to boost the fisheries sector. It focuses on sustainable development, infrastructure enhancement, and increasing fish production by 70% by 2024-25. The scheme includes components like fisheries infrastructure, technology adoption, welfare of fisherfolk, and marketing improvements. It integrates various fisheries development programs under one umbrella. PMMSY promotes aquaculture, inland fisheries, and marine fisheries with an emphasis on sustainability, climate resilience, and socio-economic upliftment of coastal communities and fisherfolk.

Why in news?

PMMSY is the overarching scheme under which the Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund operates, supporting projects like the modernization of Arthunkal port.

Predefined Treatment Packages in AB-PMJAY

Predefined treatment packages under AB-PMJAY standardize costs and procedures for over 1,500 medical and surgical treatments. These packages include diagnostics, medicines, and hospital stay costs to avoid overcharging and ensure transparency. Packages are designed after consultations with medical experts and are regularly updated based on inflation and technological advancements. They cover treatments ranging from minor surgeries to complex procedures like cardiac bypass and cancer therapy. Hospitals must strictly follow these packages for reimbursement under the scheme. This system helps in controlling healthcare expenditure and maintaining uniformity in service delivery across empanelled hospitals.

Why in news?

The treatment packages system is crucial for the efficient implementation of the expanded AB-PMJAY scheme for senior citizens.

Quick Response Team (QRT)

The Quick Response Team (QRT) is a specialized unit designed to conduct prompt field investigations in grievance redressal processes. It operates under government digital platforms like the FCI GRS to verify complaints on the ground swiftly. QRTs facilitate faster resolution by collecting real-time data and evidence, enabling nodal officers to take informed decisions. These teams often include technical experts and field officers who ensure the authenticity of grievances. The QRT model enhances transparency and accountability by bridging digital complaint systems with physical verification and enforcement mechanisms.

Why in news?

QRTs are being deployed in the newly launched FCI GRS platform to expedite field-level investigation of rice millers grievances.

Ration Cards in India

Ration cards are official documents issued by state governments in India to households eligible for subsidized food and fuel under the Public Distribution System. There are different types, including Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) cards for the poorest and Below Poverty Line (BPL) cards for low-income families. Cards include biometric data in some states for better verification. Ration cards also serve as identity proof and are sometimes used for other welfare schemes. The digitization of ration cards has improved transparency and reduced fraud by linking cards to the One Nation One Ration Card system, enabling portability across states.

Why in news?

Ration cards continue to be a focus as India expands the digitization and portability of food subsidy benefits under the Public Distribution System to enhance accessibility and reduce exclusion errors.

Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS)

The Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) is a government initiative to enhance air travel accessibility across Indias remote and underserved areas. It operates under the broader UDAN program, facilitating affordable commercial flights on short-haul routes. Airlines receive financial incentives and reduced airport charges to operate these routes. RCS promotes infrastructure upgrades at regional airports, including runway extensions and new terminals. It integrates with other transport modes to reduce travel time and boost local economies. The scheme targets boosting tourism, trade, and employment in smaller cities and rural areas.

Why in news?

Ambikapur Airport’s upgraded terminal and runway enable it to handle commercial flights under the RCS, marking progress in regional air connectivity in Chhattisgarh.

Registration of Births and Deaths (Amendment) Act, 2023

The Registration of Births and Deaths (Amendment) Act, 2023 mandates the digital registration of all births and deaths in India starting October 1, 2023. It aims to replace manual record-keeping with a centralized digital system to improve accuracy and accessibility. The Act requires states to integrate their registration processes with the national digital platform. It also ensures that certificates issued electronically are legally valid. The amendment enhances data sharing between government agencies, helping update databases like the National Population Register (NPR) and supporting public welfare schemes and demographic planning.

Why in news?

The Act’s implementation is supported by the launch of the CRS mobile app, facilitating compliance with the new digital registration requirements.

Reservation Quotas in Indian States

Reservation quotas are affirmative action policies in India that allocate a percentage of government jobs and educational seats to socially and educationally backward classes, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. These quotas vary by state, based on local socio-economic data and commission recommendations. The system aims to reduce historical inequalities and promote inclusion. In Andhra Pradesh, the Backward Classes Commission periodically reviews and suggests adjustments to these quotas. Quotas can include sub-categories like Most Backward Classes and Economically Weaker Sections. The policy is constitutionally mandated under Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution of India.

Why in news?

The Andhra Pradesh Backward Classes Commissions role in recommending reservation quotas brings attention to ongoing adjustments in affirmative action policies.

Rice Fortification

Rice fortification is the process of adding essential vitamins and minerals to rice to combat micronutrient deficiencies. The fortified kernels are produced separately and blended with regular rice at ratios typically around 1:100. Commonly added nutrients include iron, folic acid, vitamin B12, and zinc. Fortification does not alter the taste or cooking properties , making it an effective public health intervention. This method is especially important in regions where rice is a staple but diets lack diversity. India is among the largest adopters of rice fortification in government food distribution systems.

Why in news?

Rice fortification using extrusion technology has achieved universal coverage in Indias public distribution system by March 2024 to reduce malnutrition.

Rongmei Nagas

The Rongmei Nagas are one of the major indigenous Naga tribes primarily inhabiting the hill districts of Manipur and parts of Nagaland. They have a distinct language, Rongmei, belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. Rongmei society is organized around clans and customary laws that govern land ownership and social conduct. They practice shifting cultivation and maintain rich oral traditions including folk songs and dances. The tribe has actively sought protection of its land and cultural identity through constitutional provisions like Article 371(C). Rongmei Nagas have also been involved in regional political movements advocating for tribal rights and autonomy.

Why in news?

The Rongmei Nagas opposed oil exploration in the Zeilad Wildlife Sanctuary, citing Article 371(C) to protect their tribal lands and cultural heritage from environmental and economic threats.

Samarth Scheme

The Samarth Scheme is a government initiative launched by the Ministry of Textiles in 2021 to provide skill development in the textile sector. It targets traditional and organized textile industries, aiming to train over 10 lakh candidates in five years. The scheme supports infrastructure development, curriculum design, and placement assistance. It focuses on handloom, handicrafts, wool, silk, and technical textiles. Samarth emphasizes collaboration with industry stakeholders and implementing partners to align training with market demand. The scheme also includes monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to ensure quality and effectiveness.

Why in news?

Samarth Scheme has successfully trained over 3 lakh candidates, with implementing partners playing a vital role in its execution and placement support.

Santos Suárez, Cuba

Santos Suárez is a neighborhood in Havana, Cuba, known for its dense urban population and industrial activity. It has historically faced challenges with infrastructure maintenance, including water and electricity supply. The area experienced power outages during Hurricane Oscar in 2024, leading to local protests. Santos Suárezs residents are often vocal about public service deficiencies despite government restrictions. The neighborhoods social dynamics reflect broader urban issues in Havana, such as aging infrastructure, economic constraints, and limited civic space for dissent. It is a key example of how localized crises can trigger wider social unrest in Cuba.

Why in news?

Santos Suárez was one of the urban areas where blackout protests occurred after Hurricane Oscar caused extended power outages.

SECL Ki Dhadkan

SECL Ki Dhadkan is a corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiative by South Eastern Coalfields Limited (SECL), targeting improved healthcare access in coalfield regions of India. It focuses on early diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart disease (CHD) among children, particularly in underserved rural and tribal populations. The program facilitates free or subsidized cardiac surgeries, medical screenings, and awareness campaigns. By collaborating with hospitals and medical experts, SECL Ki Dhadkan aims to reduce mortality from CHD in economically disadvantaged communities. It represents a model of industry-driven healthcare intervention in remote areas with limited medical infrastructure.

Why in news?

Twenty children with congenital heart disease received successful surgeries under SECLs CSR initiative, improving access to life-saving cardiac interventions in coalfield communities.

Secondary and Tertiary Inpatient Treatments

Secondary inpatient treatment refers to specialized medical care typically provided by specialists after referral from primary care, including hospital-based services like surgeries and advanced diagnostics. Tertiary inpatient treatment involves highly specialized care for complex conditions, often requiring advanced technology and expertise, such as cancer treatment or neurosurgery. PMJAYs HBP covers both levels, ensuring comprehensive inpatient care. These treatments exclude outpatient services and are critical for managing severe and chronic illnesses. Coverage under PMJAY includes a financial cap of Rs 5 lakh per family, supporting access to expensive and complex health interventions.

Why in news?

The inclusion of secondary and tertiary inpatient treatments in PMJAYs HBP marks the schemes scope in providing extensive hospital care coverage.

Shahbad Dairy

Shahbad Dairy is a locality in Delhi, known for its dense population and mixed urban-rural characteristics. It is part of the Najafgarh area in the South West district of Delhi. The area has historically faced challenges with sanitation and infrastructure. Recent urban development projects have aimed to improve basic amenities, including public toilets and water supply. Shahbad Dairy’s community initiatives often focus on marginalized groups, with an emphasis on womens empowerment and public health. The locality reflects broader urban issues in Indian megacities, such as informal settlements and the need for sustainable sanitation solutions.

Why in news?

Shahbad Dairy is mentioned due to the appointment of female caretakers in its public toilets, improving hygiene, safety, and livelihoods in the community.

Social Determinants of Health in HIV/AIDS

Social determinants of health are non-medical factors influencing health outcomes, including economic stability, education, social support, and access to healthcare. In HIV/AIDS, these determinants affect transmission rates, treatment adherence, and quality of life. Factors such as poverty, stigma, gender inequality, and housing instability can increase vulnerability to HIV and complicate care. About these determinants helps design effective interventions that address underlying social issues, not just biological factors. Research integrating social determinants improves public health policies and community programs, especially in regions with high HIV prevalence like Zimbabwe.

Why in news?

CeSHHARs research emphasizes social determinants of health in HIV/AIDS to improve interventions discussed at CHAC 2024 in Zimbabwe.

Social Security Benefit Payment Schedule

Social Security payments in the United States are typically disbursed on a staggered schedule based on recipients’ birth dates. Payments are made on the second, third, or fourth Wednesday of each month, depending on the beneficiary’s birth date. This system was designed to manage cash flow and reduce processing burdens. When payment dates coincide with weekends or federal holidays, payments are moved to the preceding business day. This schedule influences calendar adjustments and can create fluctuations in monthly federal outlays, impacting short-term fiscal data but not the overall annual budget.

Why in news?

The Social Security payment schedule contributed to the timing shifts in September 2024, affecting reported federal budget figures through calendar adjustments.

Special Courts for Persons with Disabilities

Special Courts for Persons with Disabilities are judicial bodies established to expedite cases involving rights and protections for disabled individuals. These courts aim to reduce delays in legal proceedings and ensure sensitivity towards disability-related issues. They operate under specific mandates to enforce laws such as the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016. The courts often include trained judges and staff familiar with disability rights and accessibility needs. This judicial innovation reflects a broader effort in India to create inclusive legal frameworks and improve access to justice for marginalized populations.

Why in news?

Atishi approved the creation of special courts in Delhi to streamline judicial processes and better protect the rights of persons with disabilities.

Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Anti-Trafficking

The Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Anti-Human Trafficking in Indian railways outlines protocols for identifying, rescuing, and rehabilitating trafficking victims. It mandates coordination between AHTUs, RPF, state police, and child welfare committees. The SOP includes guidelines for victim support, evidence collection, and legal action against traffickers. It aims to streamline anti-trafficking efforts across states, ensuring uniformity in response. The SOP also emphasizes awareness programs and training for railway staff. Adoption of the SOP varies by state, affecting the efficiency of anti-trafficking measures in railway zones.

Why in news?

The SOP launch event called on states such as Assam, Gujarat, and Punjab to implement the guidelines and establish AHTUs to strengthen anti-trafficking mechanisms at railway stations.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in Public Health Emergencies

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are detailed, written instructions to achieve uniformity in the performance of specific functions. In public health emergencies, SOPs guide rapid response, resource allocation, communication, and coordination among agencies. They cover surveillance, containment, treatment protocols, and emergency logistics. SOPs ensure preparedness during peacetime, enabling swift activation of measures during outbreaks or pandemics. They are regularly updated based on lessons from past crises and evolving scientific evidence. SOPs help minimize confusion and delays in response during emergencies by providing clear, step-by-step protocols for all stakeholders.

Why in news?

EGoS will be responsible for developing SOPs to improve India’s readiness and response to future public health emergencies.

Standardized Agriculture Demonstration Farms

Standardized Agriculture Demonstration Farms are model farms designed to showcase best agricultural practices based on the guidelines of the National Agriculture Code. These farms serve as practical training and research centers for farmers, extension workers, and policymakers. They demonstrate optimized use of inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, mechanization, and sustainable farming techniques. These farms help in disseminating new technologies and standard operating procedures to improve crop yields and resource efficiency. They also facilitate data collection for refining agricultural standards and policies. The initiative is part of BISs strategy to promote standardized and scientific farming methods across India.

Why in news?

BIS is establishing Standardized Agriculture Demonstration Farms as part of its efforts to implement the National Agriculture Code and improve agricultural standards.

Standardized Treatment Packages in AB-PMJAY

Standardized treatment packages under AB-PMJAY define fixed costs for specific medical procedures and hospitalizations covered by the scheme. These packages cover diagnostics, medicines, surgery, room charges, and pre- and post-hospitalization care. The packages aim to prevent overcharging and ensure uniformity in treatment costs across empanelled hospitals. They are regularly updated based on medical inflation and technological advancements. Standardization helps in streamlining claims processing and reduces fraud. It also facilitates transparency and accountability in healthcare delivery under the scheme.

Why in news?

In October 2024, treatment packages were revised to include new procedures and adjust costs, reflecting the schemes expansion to cover more beneficiaries, including elderly citizens.

State Transport Undertakings (STUs) in India

State Transport Undertakings (STUs) are government-owned public bus service providers in state of Indias, responsible for intra- and inter-state transport. Many STUs operate aging fleets with diesel buses, contributing to urban air pollution. They often face financial and operational challenges, including high maintenance costs and low ridership. Modernization efforts involve replacing old buses with electric ones to improve efficiency and reduce emissions. STUs are key stakeholders in government schemes like PM E-DRIVE, which prioritize scrapping old buses and deploying electric alternatives to upgrade public transport infrastructure.

Why in news?

STUs are central to the PM E-DRIVE Schemes focus on replacing scrapped buses with electric fleets to modernize public transport in major Indian cities.

Sub-classification of Scheduled Castes

Sub-classification involves dividing Scheduled Castes (SCs) into smaller groups to ensure equitable distribution of reservation benefits. This system addresses disparities within SC communities where some groups may dominate access to reserved quotas. The process aims to prevent monopolization of benefits by a few dominant sub-castes. It requires detailed socio-economic data collection and analysis of caste hierarchies. Sub-classification has been implemented in some state of Indias like Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, with mixed outcomes. It remains a contentious issue due to challenges in defining groups and political implications.

Why in news?

Telanganas commission is tasked with studying sub-classification to refine reservation benefits among Scheduled Castes.

Succession Planning in Academia

Succession planning in academia is a strategic process to identify and prepare future leaders within educational institutions. It ensures institutional continuity by developing a pool of qualified candidates ready to fill key leadership roles. This process includes mentorship, leadership training, and talent development tailored to academic environments. Effective succession planning addresses challenges like retiring faculty, leadership gaps, and evolving educational demands. It promotes stability and aligns leadership with institutional vision and goals. Cohort-based leadership programmes are increasingly used as tools within succession planning to encourage collaborative skills and shared values among emerging academic leaders.

Why in news?

Succession planning is brought into light in recent UGC guidelines recommending cohort-based leadership programmes to create a sustainable leadership pipeline in Higher Education Institutions.

Supreme Court’s Juvenile Justice Committee

The Supreme Court’s Juvenile Justice Committee in India is a judicial body tasked with overseeing the implementation of juvenile justice laws and safeguarding children’s rights. It reviews cases involving juveniles, monitors child welfare institutions, and advises on policy improvements. The Committee collaborates with government agencies, NGOs, and experts to address issues such as child protection, rehabilitation, and legal reforms. It plays a key role in ensuring compliance with the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, and promotes awareness about children’s rights across the country.

Why in news?

The Committee organized the 9th Annual National Consultation, where Chief Justice Chandrachud emphasized enhanced support for children with disabilities.

Swachh Bharat Mission

The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), launched in 2014 by the Government of India, aims to eliminate open defecation and improve solid waste management across India. It is one of the largest cleanliness drives globally, targeting sanitation infrastructure development, behavioral change, and community participation. The mission includes components like constructing household toilets, promoting waste segregation, and encouraging recycling. SBM has two phases – SBM-Gramin (rural) and SBM-Urban. It has led to the declaration of many villages and towns as open defecation free (ODF) and has been linked to improved public health and environmental outcomes.

Why in news?

The GOBARdhan scheme is part of the broader Swachh Bharat Mission, aligning with Indias goals for rural sanitation, organic waste management, and sustainable development.

Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 (SBM 2.0)

Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 is the second phase of Indias nationwide sanitation campaign launched after the initial phase from 2014-2019. SBM 2.0 focuses on consolidating gains by improving solid and liquid waste management, faecal sludge management, and sustaining open defecation free status. It prioritizes rural and peri-urban sanitation infrastructure, behavioral change, and technology adoption. The mission integrates FSM as a key component to manage sanitation beyond toilet construction, emphasizing environmental safety and health outcomes. SBM 2.0 runs from 2021 to 2025 with increased funding and strategic focus on waste treatment and reuse.

Why in news?

SBM 2.0 marks FSM to address sanitation gaps, complementing toilet access with effective waste treatment and disposal.

Universal Health Coverage (UHC) in India

Universal Health Coverage means ensuring all individuals have access to needed health services without financial hardship. Indias UHC model integrates schemes like AAMs for primary outpatient care and PMJAY for inpatient care. The goal is to reduce dependence on hospital-based treatment by promoting early diagnosis and community-level healthcare. UHC in India involves strengthening public health infrastructure, increasing healthcare workforce, and expanding access to medicines and diagnostics. It aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), aiming for equitable healthcare access by 2030. UHC also addresses social determinants of health and promotes preventive, promotive, curative, and rehabilitative services.

Why in news?

UHC is the overarching framework under which AAMs and PMJAY operate, aiming to provide comprehensive, affordable healthcare across India.

Unorganised Workers in India

Unorganised workers in India refer to those employed in informal sectors without formal contracts or social security. They constitute over 90% of Indias workforce, including daily wage laborers, agricultural workers, street vendors, and domestic helpers. These workers often lack access to healthcare, pensions, and insurance. The unorganised sector contributes to the economy but faces challenges like wage insecurity and poor working conditions. Government initiatives like eShram aim to register and provide social security benefits to this vast demographic, helping bridge the gap between informal labor and formal welfare schemes.

Why in news?

The eShram-One Stop Solution targets unorganised workers to improve their registration and access to social security benefits in India.

Unorganized Sector Workers in India

Unorganized sector workers constitute about 90% of India’s workforce, including daily wage laborers, street vendors, and domestic workers. They lack formal contracts and social security coverage. The sector is characterized by low wages, job insecurity, and absence of benefits. Government initiatives like the e-Shram portal aim to formalize this workforce by providing access to welfare schemes. Data collection on this sector is challenging due to its informal nature. The unorganized sector contributes to India’s GDP but remains vulnerable to economic shocks and lacks adequate legal protection.

Why in news?

The e-Shram portal’s registration drive in Odisha reflects efforts to formalize and provide social security to unorganized sector workers, revealing gaps in sector classification and coverage.

Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and Their Role in Poverty Alleviation

Urban Local Bodies are municipal entities responsible for governance and development in cities and towns. Under DAY-NULM, ULBs act as implementing agencies coordinating with state governments and ministries. They facilitate identification of beneficiaries, formation of SHGs, skill training, and credit linkages. ULBs also oversee social infrastructure development such as community toilets, street vendor markets, and childcare centers. Their decentralized governance model allows tailored interventions for vulnerable urban populations. The effectiveness of DAY-NULM largely depends on the capacity and responsiveness of ULBs in managing these multifaceted roles.

Why in news?

The second phase of DAY-NULM will rely heavily on ULBs in 25 pilot cities to execute the programs expanded objectives for urban poverty alleviation.

Urban Sanitation Models in India

Urban sanitation models in India include community-managed toilets, pay-and-use facilities, and government-operated complexes. Innovative approaches incorporate gender-sensitive design and management, such as appointing female caretakers. These models aim to improve hygiene, reduce open defecation, and enhance safety, especially for women and children. Community participation and livelihood creation for marginalized groups are key components. The Swachh Bharat Mission has accelerated the development of such models, emphasizing sustainability and inclusivity. Challenges include maintenance, funding, and social stigma. Successful models often combine technology, social innovation, and local governance to address urban sanitation issues comprehensively.

Why in news?

The appointment of female caretakers in Shahbad Dairy exemplifies evolving urban sanitation models promoting safety, hygiene, and womens empowerment in India.

Urmila Chaudhary

Urmila Chaudhary is a Nepalese civil rights activist focusing on racial and caste-based discrimination. She has worked extensively with marginalized communities, advocating for social justice and equity in Nepals caste system. Chaudharys activism includes grassroots organizing, legal advocacy, and public awareness campaigns. She has collaborated with international human rights organizations to show Nepals caste issues globally. Her work bridges local cultural traditions and universal human rights principles. Chaudharys recognition by the Global Anti-Racism Championship Award in 2024 marks milestone in international acknowledgment of caste discrimination as a form of systemic racism.

Why in news?

Urmila Chaudhary received the 2024 Global Anti-Racism Championship Award for her work against racial and caste-based discrimination in Nepal.

Vitiligo

Vitiligo is a chronic skin disorder characterized by loss of melanocytes, the cells responsible for skin pigmentation, resulting in white patches. It affects approximately 1% of the global population and can appear at any age. The exact cause remains unknown but involves autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors. It is not contagious or life-threatening. Treatments include topical corticosteroids, phototherapy, and skin grafting, though results vary. In some cultures, vitiligo carries social stigma and misconceptions, leading to discrimination. Awareness campaigns and media representation aim to reduce prejudice and improve quality of life for those affected.

Why in news?

Vitiligo is central to the films theme, which seeks to normalize and destigmatize the condition in Indian culture through mainstream media.

Defence

Defence

Maritime Drug Trafficking in the Indian Ocean

Maritime drug trafficking in the Indian Ocean involves smuggling routes connecting producers in Southwest Asia and Africa to consumer markets in Europe and Asia. The region’s vast and porous maritime borders make it a transit hub for narcotics like heroin and methamphetamine. Traffickers exploit remote islands and unmonitored sea lanes. Countries like Sri Lanka and Maldives have enhanced naval patrols and intelligence sharing to disrupt these networks. The Indian Ocean is also a corridor for synthetic drug production and distribution, complicating law enforcement efforts.

Why in news?

Drug trafficking is a key security threat addressed by the Colombo Security Conclave through coordinated maritime patrols and intelligence exchange.

Salt Typhoon

Salt Typhoon is a cyber espionage group believed to be state-sponsored, specializing in cyberattacks targeting government and intelligence agencies. Known for advanced persistent threats (APTs), they use sophisticated malware and phishing techniques to gain unauthorized access to sensitive data. Their operations often focus on stealing classified information related to national security and intelligence. Salt Typhoons activities have been linked to attempts to breach secure communication networks and intelligence databases worldwide. Their name was publicly associated with cyber intrusions around 2024, marking them as threat actor in global cybersecurity.

Why in news?

Salt Typhoon hackers are suspected of accessing or observing FISA-related intelligence collection data, raising alarms over potential compromise of U.S. surveillance operations.

Abhay Warship

Abhay is one of the newly launched Arnala class ASW SWC vessels built by GRSE for the Indian Navy. The name Abhay means fearless in Hindi. This ship is equipped with modern sonar, torpedoes, and anti-submarine rocket launchers to perform shallow water anti-submarine warfare. It represents Indias push for indigenous naval defense manufacturing under the Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative. Abhay is designed to operate in coastal and littoral waters, providing enhanced surveillance and protection against submarine threats near Indias maritime boundaries.

Why in news?

Abhay has been recently launched as part of the Arnala class ASW SWC project, marking a milestone in indigenous warship construction by GRSE.

Air Defence Control and Reporting System (ADCRS)

An Air Defence Control and Reporting System (ADCRS) is a military command and control system that integrates radar data, threat assessment, and weapon coordination to protect airspace. It collects information from multiple sensors, tracks hostile targets like missiles and aircraft, and assigns air defence assets accordingly. ADCRS improves decision-making speed and accuracy through communication links, data processors, and operator consoles. It can operate autonomously or as part of a larger integrated network, enhancing battlefield awareness and force survivability. These systems are critical for coordinating air defence responses in modern warfare environments.

Why in news?

The Akashteer system, an ADCRS developed by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), was delivered in 100 units to the Indian Army by September 2024, marking upgrade in Indias air defence capabilities.

Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW)

Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) involves tactics, technologies, and operations to detect, track, and neutralize enemy submarines. It includes the use of sonar systems, maritime patrol aircraft, surface ships, and submarines equipped with torpedoes and depth charges. ASW is critical for maintaining control over sea lanes and preventing underwater threats. Modern ASW also integrates unmanned underwater vehicles and advanced acoustic sensors. The 2024 Exercise Malabar emphasized ASW to enhance interoperability among Quad navies in response to growing submarine capabilities in the Indo-Pacific.

Why in news?

ASW was a key focus of Exercise Malabar 2024, reflecting the Quad countries’ efforts to strengthen maritime security against underwater threats in the Indo-Pacific.

Arihant-class Submarines

The Arihant-class submarines are Indias first indigenously built nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). Powered by a pressurized water reactor fueled with enriched uranium, these vessels carry nuclear ballistic missiles as part of Indias strategic nuclear triad. The lead vessel, INS Arihant, was commissioned in 2016. They feature advanced stealth technology to evade sonar detection and operate underwater for extended periods. The class represents a major step in Indias second-strike nuclear capability. The submarines are about 110 meters long and displace around 6,000 tons when submerged.

Why in news?

The Arihant-class is central to Indias nuclear deterrence, and developments in this class are linked to the new SSNs being built under the ATV project.

Avro Aircraft

The Avro aircraft, primarily the Avro HS 748, served as a tactical transport plane in the Indian Air Force for over four decades. It was manufactured by the British Aircraft Corporation and was known for its reliability and ability to operate from rough airstrips. The Avro could carry around 40 troops or cargo and was widely used for logistics, paratrooper drops, and casualty evacuation. Despite its age, the aircraft remained in service due to its robustness until replaced by modern platforms like the C-295. Its phased retirement began in the 2010s, marking the end of an era in IAF transport aviation.

Why in news?

The induction of the IAF C-295 aircraft is part of the modernization effort to replace the aging Avro aircraft fleet in the Indian Air Force.

Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL)

Bharat Dynamics Limited, founded in 1970, is a public sector enterprise under Indias Ministry of Defence focused on the production of guided missile systems. It manufactures a range of missiles including anti-tank guided missiles, surface-to-air missiles, and underwater weapons. BDL is the sole manufacturer of Indias Akash surface-to-air missile and has been instrumental in missile production for the Indian Armed Forces. The company also produces missile launchers and related components. BDL operates multiple manufacturing units and has expanded into missile system integration and maintenance services. It plays a key role in Indias strategic defense manufacturing ecosystem.

Why in news?

BDL is brought into light for its role in producing missile-related technologies integrated into the electronic warfare suite for the Indian Air Forces C295 aircraft.

Bottleneck (Depsang)

The “Bottleneck” is a narrow valley within the Depsang Plains near the India-China border, named for its constricted geography. It serves as a key access point to several Indian patrol points numbered PP10 to PP13. During the 2020 standoff, Chinese PLA forces blocked Indian patrols from entering this area, effectively restricting access to strategic patrol zones. The valleys geography makes it a natural choke point, impacting military movement and surveillance. The region experiences severe weather, complicating troop deployment and supply efforts.

Why in news?

The Bottleneck gained attention as the site where Indian patrol access was blocked for years, with recent disengagements allowing renewed patrols after the 2020 standoff.

Exercise Malabar

Exercise Malabar began in 1992 as a bilateral naval exercise between India and the United States. It expanded to include Japan in 2015 and Australia in 2020, becoming a multilateral event involving the Quad countries. The exercise emphasizes maritime security, anti-submarine warfare, and interoperability in the Indo-Pacific. It has phases including a Harbour Phase for planning and coordination and a Sea Phase for operational drills. The 2024 edition off Visakhapatnam was the most complex, incorporating advanced operational scenarios and enhancing strategic ties among participating nations.

Why in news?

Exercise Malabar 2024 took place off Visakhapatnam, focusing on anti-submarine warfare and maritime cooperation among Quad countries, marking its most comprehensive edition to date.

Exercise SWAVLAMBAN SHAKTI

Exercise SWAVLAMBAN SHAKTI is a recent Indian Army military exercise focused on testing and integrating indigenous defense technologies into operational scenarios. It involves various army units, including mechanized infantry, artillery, and armored divisions, operating in combined arms formations. The exercise emphasizes self-reliance in defense capabilities, reflecting Indias push for domestic defense production under the Make in India initiative. It showcases live-fire drills, mobility, and coordination among troops using new weapon systems and communication platforms. The exercise is designed to validate new tactical doctrines and enhance combat readiness through realistic battlefield simulations.

Why in news?

Exercise SWAVLAMBAN SHAKTI is underway at Babina Field Firing Ranges, denoting Indias advancements in indigenous defense technology and army operational integration.

Glide Bombs

Glide bombs are air-launched munitions equipped with aerodynamic surfaces such as wings or fins that allow them to glide toward targets after release. They extend the range of traditional gravity bombs by several tens of kilometers without propulsion. Guidance systems include GPS, laser designation, and infrared homing, enabling precise targeting. They reduce risk to aircraft by allowing release from stand-off distances outside enemy air defenses. Glide bombs are typically used against fortified structures, infrastructure, and high-value targets. Their development dates back to Cold War-era experiments but have become more common with modern guidance technology improvements.

Why in news?

Russian forces have used glide bombs extensively in the October 2024 offensive on Vuhledar, Ukraine, targeting military positions and infrastructure to degrade Ukrainian defenses.

Hypersonic Cruise Missiles

Hypersonic cruise missiles travel at speeds exceeding Mach 5, enabling rapid strike capabilities. Unlike ballistic missiles, they maintain lower altitudes and can change trajectory mid-flight, complicating interception. These missiles combine speed, maneuverability, and altitude to evade traditional missile defense systems. They may carry conventional or nuclear warheads. Development is ongoing in several countries, including Iran, Russia, China, and the US. Their flight path involves a sustained powered phase unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a parabolic trajectory. Hypersonic technology integrates advanced materials to withstand extreme heat from air friction at high speeds.

Why in news?

Iran publicly demonstrated its hypersonic cruise missile capability during its October 1, 2024, missile attack on Israel, challenging existing missile defenses and signaling a strategic advancement in missile technology.

IAF C-295

The IAF C-295 is a tactical military transport aircraft developed by Airbus Defence and Space, powered by twin turboprop engines. It has a maximum payload of 9,250 kg and can carry up to 71 troops or 50 paratroopers. The aircraft is equipped with advanced avionics and a rear ramp for rapid loading and unloading. It is designed to operate from short and semi-prepared airstrips, enhancing its versatility in varied terrains. The C-295 is used for tactical airlift, medical evacuation, and maritime patrol missions, replacing the older Avro fleet in the Indian Air Force.

Why in news?

The IAF C-295 landed successfully at Navi Mumbai International Airports South runway, marking a key milestone in the airports development and testing phase before becoming fully operational.

ICGS Veera

ICGS Veera is an Indian Coast Guard offshore patrol vessel commissioned to enhance maritime security and coastal surveillance. It is designed for extended patrols, anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, and search and rescue operations. The ship is equipped with modern navigation and communication systems and light armaments suitable for Coast Guard duties. ICGS Veeras participation in the First Training Squadrons deployments reflects the Coast Guards increasing role in joint naval training and international cooperation. It has a displacement of approximately 1,500 tons and a top speed of around 26 knots.

Why in news?

ICGS Veera was part of the 1TS deployment visiting strategic ports in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, enhancing training and diplomatic ties.

iDEX Framework

The Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) framework was launched by the Indian Ministry of Defence in 2018 to encourage innovation and technology development in the defence sector. It promotes collaboration between startups, academia, and industry to create indigenous defence technologies. iDEX operates through Defence Innovation Organisation (DIO), which facilitates funding, mentorship, and testing facilities. It supports projects in areas like AI, robotics, and advanced materials. iDEX has launched multiple schemes including ADITI to address specific defence technology needs. The framework aims to reduce dependence on imports and strengthen the domestic defence industrial base.

Why in news?

iDEX continues to expand its initiatives, including the launch of ADITI 2.0 in October 2024, to accelerate innovation in strategic defence technologies.

INS Arighaat

INS Arighaat is Indias second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), commissioned on August 29, 2024. It belongs to the Arihant-class series and is equipped with K-4 nuclear ballistic missiles that have a range of 3,500 km. The submarine enhances Indias strategic deterrence by carrying longer-range missiles compared to INS Arihant, which uses K-15 missiles with a 750 km range. INS Arighaat is built with indigenous content, reflecting advances in Indias naval nuclear capabilities. It plays a vital role in maintaining continuous at-sea deterrence as part of Indias nuclear triad.

Why in news?

INS Arighaat was recently commissioned, strengthening Indias nuclear deterrence and submarine fleet in the Indo-Pacific region amid ongoing maritime security developments.

INS Arihant

The INS Arihant is Indias first indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), launched in 2009. It is equipped with nuclear propulsion and can carry ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. The submarine is approximately 111 meters long and displaces around 6,000 tons. INS Arihant enables India to maintain a credible second-strike capability under its nuclear doctrine. It was developed under the ATV programme and represents a major strategic asset for Indias naval defense and nuclear deterrence.

Why in news?

INS Arihant remains a mainstay of Indias nuclear triad, with recent upgrades and successive submarines like INS Arighaat and S4 expanding its capabilities.

INS Chakra

INS Chakra is the name given to the Indian Navys leased Akula-class nuclear-powered attack submarine. The first INS Chakra was leased from Russia in 2012 for a 10-year period. It serves primarily as a training platform for Indian crews to gain experience in operating SSNs before indigenous construction begins. The submarine is equipped with torpedoes and cruise missiles, and its lease agreement includes technical support and joint exercises. INS Chakrly enhances Indias underwater operational capabilities, marking India as one of the few countries operating nuclear-powered submarines without owning the technology outright.

Why in news?

Indias continued lease of INS Chakra supports its strategy to build a credible nuclear submarine force and train personnel for future indigenous SSN projects.

INS Chakra (S71)

INS Chakra (S71) was an Akula-class submarine leased by India from Russia between 2012 and 2021. It was the first nuclear-powered submarine operated by the Indian Navy, serving as a platform for developing nuclear submarine operational expertise. The lease agreement allowed India to train its crews and improve underwater warfare tactics. The submarine displaced around 12,770 tons submerged and could operate at depths exceeding 600 meters. Its lease ended without renewal amid geopolitical tensions after Russias invasion of Ukraine. INS Chakra’s deployment marked step in Indias strategic naval capabilities and nuclear deterrence.

Why in news?

The lease of INS Chakra ended in 2021, and India could not renew it due to geopolitical tensions related to the Russia-Ukraine war.

INS Shardul

INS Shardul is an amphibious warfare ship of the Indian Navy, commissioned in 2007. It belongs to the Shardul-class of tank landing ships capable of transporting troops, vehicles, and equipment for amphibious operations. The ship has a displacement of about 5,600 tons and can carry up to 14 tanks and 500 troops. It is equipped with light artillery and anti-aircraft guns. INS Shardul has participated in humanitarian missions, naval exercises, and training deployments, including those by the First Training Squadron, to enhance operational readiness and international maritime cooperation.

Why in news?

INS Shardul, as part of 1TS, recently completed port visits in the Persian Gulf region during a naval training deployment.

INS Shivalik

INS Shivalik is the lead ship of the Shivalik-class stealth multi-role frigates of the Indian Navy, commissioned in 2010. It incorporates stealth features to reduce radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures. The ship is equipped with advanced sensors, including the Rohini radar and the Barak 1 missile system. It features a combined diesel or gas (CODOG) propulsion system, enabling speeds up to 32 knots. INS Shivalik supports anti-submarine, anti-aircraft, and anti-surface warfare roles. It was the first Indian Navy ship designed and built with extensive indigenous content, marking step in Indias naval shipbuilding capabilities.

Why in news?

INS Shivalik is part of the 31st SIMBEX exercise hosted by the Eastern Naval Command in Visakhapatnam and the Bay of Bengal.

INS Tir

INS Tir is a training ship of the Indian Navy, commissioned in 1986 and primarily used by the First Training Squadron for cadet training. It is equipped with modern navigational and communication systems to provide practical maritime experience. The ship has a displacement of approximately 4,000 tons and is capable of long voyages, visiting multiple international ports. INS Tir plays role in seamanship and navigation training. It is named after the Hindi word for “arrow,” symbolizing speed and precision. The ship has participated in several multinational exercises enhancing India’s naval diplomacy.

Why in news?

INS Tir is part of the First Training Squadrons current deployment to Bandar Abbas, Iran, as part of a long-range training and diplomatic mission.

INS Vikrant

INS Vikrant (IAC-1) is Indias first indigenous aircraft carrier, commissioned by Cochin Shipyard Limited. It has a displacement of approximately 40,000 tons and is designed for short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) operations. The ship measures about 262 meters in length and can carry up to 30 aircraft including MiG-29K fighters. INS Vikrant was launched in 2013 and commissioned in 2022, marking a milestone in Indias naval self-reliance. It is equipped with modern radar, electronic warfare systems, and a ski-jump for aircraft launch, enhancing Indias blue-water naval capabilities.

Why in news?

INS Vikrant remains central to Indias naval modernization and indigenous warship production, with ongoing upgrades and deployment in strategic maritime operations.

K-4 Ballistic Missile

The K-4 missile is an indigenous submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) developed by Indias Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). It has a range of approximately 3,500 km and can carry a nuclear warhead. The missile is designed to be launched from Arihant-class SSBNs, providing India with a credible second-strike capability. The K-4 uses solid fuel and advanced inertial guidance systems, allowing for improved accuracy and reliability. It represents upgrade over the earlier K-15 missile, extending strike range and enhancing the survivability of Indias nuclear deterrent force.

Why in news?

The K-4 missile is now operational aboard INS Arighaat, marking a key milestone in Indias strategic missile development and enhancing the range and effectiveness of its sea-based nuclear deterrent.

Low Intensity Maritime Operations (LIMO)

Low Intensity Maritime Operations (LIMO) refer to naval missions that involve non-conventional, low-scale maritime security tasks such as anti-piracy patrols, coastal surveillance, humanitarian aid, and mine laying or clearance. These operations typically do not involve full-scale warfare but require constant vigilance to maintain maritime security and sovereignty. LIMO is crucial for countries with extensive coastlines and busy shipping lanes, where threats from terrorism, smuggling, and piracy persist. The Indian Navy integrates LIMO capabilities into vessels like the Arnala class to address these challenges effectively in coastal and shallow water environments.

Why in news?

The Arnala class ships are designed to support LIMO alongside their primary anti-submarine warfare role, enhancing Indias coastal security in 2024.

Medical Innovations and Research Advancement (MIRA)

MIRA is a newly introduced initiative under DISC 12, focusing exclusively on medical technologies tailored for the Armed Forces. It includes nine specific challenges aimed at developing healthcare solutions that address battlefield medical emergencies, rehabilitation, and overall soldier health management. MIRA supports innovations in diagnostics, treatment devices, telemedicine, and wearable health monitors. This initiative reflects an increasing emphasis on integrating advanced medical technology into defence services, aiming to enhance the quality and timeliness of healthcare for military personnel in diverse operational environments.

Why in news?

MIRA was launched as part of DISC 12 to bring medical innovation into defence technology challenges, targeting improved healthcare solutions for the military.

Mid-Career Courses for Indian Armed Forces Officers

Mid-career courses are mandatory professional development programs for Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force officers, typically conducted at institutions like the College of Defence Management. These courses aim to enhance leadership, operational planning, and joint service coordination skills. They include studies in military history, strategy, logistics, and management principles. The curriculum is periodically updated to reflect contemporary security challenges and doctrinal changes. Inclusion of indigenous strategic thought, such as teachings from ancient Indian military theorists, is a recent innovation to deepen cultural and historical understanding among officers.

Why in news?

Mid-career courses are being revised to incorporate ancient Indian military strategic thought, as part of efforts led by the College of Defence Management to promote indigenous knowledge in defense training.

MQ-9B Drones

The MQ-9B is an advanced variant of the MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle, designed for intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and precision strike missions. It features enhanced sensors, increased payload capacity, and improved endurance, capable of flying up to 42 hours continuously. The MQ-9B can operate in contested environments with advanced electronic warfare capabilities. It supports multi-mission flexibility, including maritime surveillance and overland strike. The drone integrates with allied forces through FMS contracts, enhancing interoperability. It is used by several countries for strategic defense purposes, including Indias recent acquisition.

Why in news?

Indias purchase of 31 MQ-9B drones through the FMS program marks the expanding use of these advanced unmanned systems in international defense cooperation.

MQ-9B Predator Drone

The MQ-9B Predator is an advanced unmanned aerial vehicle developed by General Atomics, primarily used for surveillance and precision strikes. It features improved endurance and payload capacity compared to earlier Predator variants. The MQ-9B can carry various sensors and weapons, including laser-guided bombs and missiles. It has satellite communication capabilities, allowing beyond-line-of-sight operations. Its enhanced stealth and electronic warfare features make it suitable for modern battlefield scenarios. The drone supports intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), and targeted strike missions, widely used by the U.S. and allied forces.

Why in news?

Indias CCS approved the acquisition of MQ-9B Predator drones, marking upgrade in the countrys aerial surveillance and strike capabilities.

National Pavilions at EURONAVAL

National pavilions at EURONAVAL are dedicated exhibition spaces where individual countries present their naval defense capabilities, technologies, and innovations. These pavilions facilitate bilateral and multilateral defense cooperation. Participating countries often include major naval powers as well as emerging maritime nations. The pavilions are organized by government agencies or defense ministries and showcase a range of products from shipbuilding to underwater drones. These pavilions help smaller countries gain visibility and enable direct interaction between foreign naval delegations and domestic defense industries. They also serve as platforms for announcing new naval contracts and partnerships.

Why in news?

EURONAVAL 2024 will feature 13 countries organizing national pavilions, denoting their naval technology and encouraging international defense collaboration.

Next Generation Missile Vessels (NGMVs)

Next Generation Missile Vessels (NGMVs) are a class of fast attack craft designed for the Indian Navy, intended for coastal defense and anti-surface warfare. These vessels are equipped with advanced missile systems, including supersonic anti-ship missiles, and feature stealth technology to reduce radar signature. NGMVs have a displacement of around 350-400 tons and can reach speeds exceeding 35 knots. They are built with modular construction techniques for rapid production. The Indian Navy plans to induct multiple NGMVs to enhance littoral combat capabilities and secure maritime borders.

Why in news?

Cochin Shipyard Limited is constructing six NGMVs under a ₹9,805 crore contract, aimed at strengthening Indias coastal defense and missile warfare capacity.

Over-the-Horizon Targeting (OTHT)

Over-the-Horizon Targeting (OTHT) is a military technique that allows forces to detect, track, and engage targets beyond the line of sight using remote sensors, radar, or reconnaissance platforms. OTHT extends the effective range of weapons systems by providing targeting data from distant or hidden sources. It is vital for naval and air forces operating in large maritime domains where direct visual or radar contact is limited. OTHT integrates data from aircraft, satellites, and other sensors to enable long-range precision strikes and situational awareness. The concept has been increasingly adopted with advances in network-centric warfare.

Why in news?

The Dornier Maritime Patrol Aircraft provided OTHT data during the Indo-Oman naval exercise Naseem-Al-Bahr in October 2024, enhancing targeting capabilities for participating naval forces.

Police Commemoration Day (India)

Police Commemoration Day is observed annually on October 21 in India to honor police personnel who died in the line of duty. It was instituted after the 1959 Hot Springs ambush where 10 Indian policemen were killed by Chinese troops during a border clash. The day serves to remember sacrifices made by police forces across India, with ceremonies held nationwide. It marks the role of police in national security and public safety. The day also promotes awareness of the challenges faced by law enforcement personnel in conflict zones and internal security operations.

Why in news?

The day commemorates the 1959 Hot Springs ambush victims, marking a key moment in India-China border tensions.

Precision Guidance Systems in Glide Bombs

Glide bombs utilize multiple precision guidance technologies to improve accuracy. GPS guidance provides all-weather, long-range navigation by connecting to satellite signals. Laser guidance requires a laser designator to illuminate the target, allowing the bomb to home in on the reflected laser energy. Infrared guidance uses heat signatures to track targets, useful against vehicles or infrastructure emitting heat. Some glide bombs combine these systems for redundancy and adaptability. The integration of these technologies allows glide bombs to achieve circular error probable (CEP) of just a few meters, reducing collateral damage and increasing mission success rates.

Why in news?

The use of glide bombs guided by GPS, laser, and infrared systems has been reported in the recent Russian attacks on Vuhledar, enhancing strike precision against Ukrainian targets.

Project 971 Shchuka-B

Project 971 Shchuka-B is the Soviet designation for the Akula-class nuclear attack submarines. “Shchuka” means “pike” in Russian, symbolizing the submarines stealth and strike capabilities. The class was designed to counter U.S. Navy ballistic missile submarines and carrier groups during the Cold War. It introduced innovations like a double-hull structure with a hydrodynamically optimized outer hull and a pressure-resistant inner hull. The submarines use a nuclear reactor for propulsion, allowing extended underwater endurance. Project 971 units have been upgraded over time with improved sonar, weaponry, and noise reduction technologies. They remain in service with the Russian Navy.

Why in news?

Project 971 Shchuka-B submarines are referenced due to the expiration of India’s lease of the INS Chakra, an Akula-class submarine, amid geopolitical tensions.

Rafael Advanced Defense Systems

Rafael Advanced Defense Systems is an Israeli defense technology company founded in 1948. It specializes in military electronics, missile systems, and defense solutions. Rafael developed the Iron Dome, Davids Sling, and Trophy active protection system for armored vehicles. It operates under the Israeli Ministry of Defense and collaborates internationally, including with RTX Corp on Davids Sling. Rafaels innovations include the Spike missile family and advanced radar systems. The company employs around 7,000 personnel and invests heavily in research and development to maintain technological edge in missile defense and battlefield systems.

Why in news?

Rafaels joint development of Davids Sling with RTX Corp was spotlighted during Israels missile defense efforts in October 2024.

Rapid Action Force (RAF)

The Rapid Action Force is a specialized wing of the CRPF created in 1992 for quick deployment during riots and communal violence. RAF personnel are trained in crowd control, riot management, and disaster response, using non-lethal weapons like tear gas, water cannons, and batons. The force is organized into battalions equipped with riot gear and vehicles designed for rapid movement in urban and rural areas. RAF operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs and has been deployed in major Indian cities during communal tensions and protests. It also assists in disaster relief operations and election security.

Why in news?

CRPFs involvement in internal security operations and personnel like Vikash Yadav, formerly part of CRPF units including RAF, has come under scrutiny due to alleged criminal activities.

Rear Ramp Loading System

A rear ramp loading system is a feature in military transport aircraft that allows cargo, vehicles, and personnel to be loaded and unloaded efficiently through a rear door that doubles as a ramp. This system enables rapid deployment of troops and equipment, even on short or unprepared runways. It supports airdrop operations by allowing paratroopers and cargo to exit the aircraft safely. The ramp is hydraulically or electrically operated and designed to handle heavy payloads. Rear ramps increase operational flexibility, enabling aircraft like the C295 to perform diverse missions such as medical evacuation, cargo transport, and tactical insertions.

Why in news?

The C295 aircraft, equipped with a rear ramp loading system, is being produced in Indias new private military aircraft facility, enhancing tactical airlift capabilities.

Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF)

The Republic of Singapore Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Singapore Armed Forces, established in 1975. It operates a mix of advanced fighter jets, transport aircraft, and surveillance platforms. RSAF has developed a reputation for highly integrated joint operations and participates regularly in multinational exercises to enhance regional security. It maintains a strong focus on precision strike capabilities, electronic warfare, and air defense. RSAFs involvement in exercises like Ex-Tarang Shakti and JMT-2024 reflects Singapores strategic emphasis on defense diplomacy and interoperability with key partners.

Why in news?

The RSAFs participation in Ex-Tarang Shakti 2024 and subsequent JMT-2024 bilateral exercise marks Singapores expanding defense collaboration with India.

S4 Series Submarines

The S4 series submarines are the latest class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines developed under Indias ATV programme. They feature technological upgrades over previous vessels, including improved reactor efficiency, enhanced stealth capabilities, and increased missile payload capacity. The S4 series aims to strengthen Indias sea-based nuclear deterrent with greater indigenous content and operational range. These submarines are expected to play a critical role in Indias strategic defense posture in the coming decades.

Why in news?

The launch of the first S4 series submarine signals Indias continued progress in developing advanced nuclear submarine technology and expanding its strategic deterrence fleet.

Shigeru Ishiba

Shigeru Ishiba is a Japanese politician known for his expertise in defense and regional security. He served as Japans Minister of Defense from 2007 to 2008 and has been a key advocate for strengthening Japans military alliances. Ishiba supports enhancing Japans role in collective defense frameworks and has promoted integrating US nuclear deterrence strategies in Asia. He is recognized for his pragmatic approach to security, emphasizing cooperation with the US and regional partners. Ishiba has also been involved in Japans internal political debates on constitutional revision related to military capabilities.

Why in news?

Shigeru Ishiba, newly appointed Prime Minister of Japan, proposed the formation of an Asian NATO to counter Chinas military threats and enhance regional defense cooperation.

Sonobuoys

Sonobuoys are expendable sonar systems deployed from aircraft or ships to detect underwater sounds, primarily for anti-submarine warfare. They can be passive (listening only) or active (emitting sonar pulses). Once deployed, sonobuoys transmit acoustic data via radio signals to monitoring stations. They are typically dropped in patterns to cover wide ocean areas and help triangulate submarine positions. Sonobuoy technology dates back to World War II and has evolved with digital signal processing. Modern sonobuoys can operate for several hours and are crucial for maritime patrol aircraft and naval vessels in detecting and tracking submarines.

Why in news?

Sonobuoys were part of the sensor suite used by the Dornier Maritime Patrol Aircraft during the Indo-Oman naval exercise Naseem-Al-Bahr in October 2024 for anti-submarine operations.

Special Heliborne Operations

Special Heliborne Operations refer to military missions involving insertion or extraction of troops via helicopters into hostile or inaccessible areas. These operations often use rapid deployment tactics, including fast-roping, rappelling, and air assault techniques. They are critical for special forces to conduct reconnaissance, raids, or rescue missions. Heliborne units are trained to operate in diverse environments such as urban areas, forests, and mountainous regions. The combination of helicopter mobility and specialized infantry tactics allows for swift, surprise actions behind enemy lines. Coordination with airborne techniques like CFF enhances operational flexibility and precision.

Why in news?

Special heliborne operations form part of the tactical drills rehearsed during the India-Kazakhstan Joint Military Exercise KAZIND-2024 to improve joint operational capabilities.

Su-30 MKI

The Su-30 MKI is a twinjet multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russias Sukhoi and customized for India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. It features thrust vectoring nozzles and canards for enhanced maneuverability. The aircraft is equipped with advanced avionics, including a phased array radar. It can carry a wide variety of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles. The Su-30 MKI is one of the heaviest and most powerful fighters in the Indian Air Force, capable of long-range missions and precision strikes. It has a combat radius of approximately 1,500 km and can be refueled mid-air.

Why in news?

The Su-30 MKI is actively involved in joint training exercises at Kalaikunda Air Force Station in October-November 2024.

Sub-conventional Warfare

Sub-conventional warfare refers to military operations below the threshold of conventional war, often involving guerrilla tactics, insurgency, terrorism, and irregular combat. It includes small-scale, low-intensity conflicts where state and non-state actors engage in asymmetric warfare. This form of warfare challenges traditional military doctrines due to its decentralized, fluid nature and reliance on local populations. It often involves psychological operations, sabotage, and intelligence-driven missions. Sub-conventional warfare is prominent in counter-terrorism and peace enforcement operations authorized under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.

Why in news?

The India-Kazakhstan exercise KAZIND-2024 focuses on sub-conventional warfare scenarios as part of counter-terrorism efforts under Chapter VII mandates.

Submerged Displacement

Submerged displacement refers to the weight of water displaced by a submarine when fully submerged, reflecting the vessels actual mass underwater. For Akula-class submarines, this is about 12,000 tons. This measure differs from surfaced displacement, which is lower due to partial buoyancy. Submerged displacement affects submarine stability, speed, and stealth. It is a critical factor in design, impacting how deeply and quietly a submarine can operate. Larger submerged displacement usually means more space for weapons, crew, and systems but can reduce maneuverability. It is a standard naval metric to compare submarine sizes and capabilities.

Why in news?

The Akula-classs submerged displacement contributes to its advanced operational profile, relevant to Indias plans to lease more such submarines by 2028.

Talwar-class guided missile frigate

The Talwar-class frigates are a series of stealth frigates built in Russia for the Indian Navy, based on the Russian Krivak III-class design. They incorporate Indian, Russian, and Western weaponry and sensors. The class features reduced radar cross-section through special hull design and coatings. These ships are equipped with Klub-N cruise missiles and BrahMos supersonic missiles, enhancing strike capabilities. They have advanced electronic warfare suites and anti-submarine warfare equipment. The Talwar-class frigates displace approximately 4,000 tons and have a top speed near 30 knots, making them versatile multi-role warships.

Why in news?

INS Trikand, a Talwar-class frigate, took part in the Indo-Oman naval exercise Naseem-Al-Bahr in October 2024, showcasing enhanced maritime cooperation.

Tata Advanced Systems Limited (TASL)

Tata Advanced Systems Limited is a private aerospace and defense company under the Tata Group, specializing in manufacturing aircraft components, systems integration, and defense solutions. TASL collaborates with global aerospace majors like Airbus, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. It operates several manufacturing units across India, including the Vadodara FAL. TASL plays a key role in India’s defense indigenization efforts and is involved in projects like the C-295 assembly and production of components for the F-16 fighter jet. The company supports MSMEs by integrating them into the aerospace supply chain, enhancing local manufacturing capabilities.

Why in news?

TASL partnered with Airbus to establish the FAL at Vadodara, enabling local assembly of the C-295 military transport aircraft.

Tata Aerospace and Defence Sector (TASL)

Tata Aerospace and Defence Sector Limited (TASL) is a division of Tata Group focused on aerospace manufacturing, defense systems, and related technologies. TASLs capabilities include aircraft component manufacturing, system integration, and assembly. It is a key partner in the Government of India’s push for defense indigenization, producing parts and assembling military aircraft like the C-295 under license. TASL collaborates with global aerospace firms and has invested in advanced manufacturing technologies. The company supports Indias strategic goals by increasing self-reliance in defense production and has expanded its footprint in both military and civil aerospace sectors.

Why in news?

TASL is producing 12 of the 15 additional C-295 aircraft in India, supporting the countrys maritime reconnaissance and defense manufacturing growth.

THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense)

THAAD is a US missile defense system designed to intercept and destroy short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their terminal phase. It uses hit-to-kill technology, relying on kinetic energy to neutralize threats without explosives. Operational since 2008, THAAD batteries include radar, launchers, and interceptors, costing around USD 2.5 billion per battery. It can engage targets at altitudes up to 150 km and ranges of 200 km. THAADs radar system, AN/TPY-2, can also provide early warning for other missile defense assets. It has been deployed in South Korea, the UAE, and now Israel.

Why in news?

THAADs USD 2.5 billion cost was brought into light to illustrate financial and operational challenges as the US deploys it in Israel amid regional tensions.

US Space Force

The US Space Force (USSF) was established in December 2019 as the sixth branch of the US Armed Forces, focusing on space warfare and defense. It oversees military space operations, satellite control, and space launch facilities like Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. The USSF manages space domain awareness, missile warning, and satellite communications. It evolved from Air Force Space Command and operates under the Department of the Air Force. The creation of the Space Force marked the first new military branch since the US Air Force in 1947, reflecting the increasing strategic importance of space.

Why in news?

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station was renamed Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in 2021 following the establishment of the US Space Force, under which it now operates.

Vegetation Cover in Military Tactics

Vegetation cover refers to natural plant growth used by military forces for concealment, protection, and camouflage against enemy observation and targeting. Dense foliage can shield troops and equipment from aerial and ground surveillance, reducing visibility and infrared detection. It also provides natural barriers against direct fire and explosives. However, it is vulnerable to incendiary attacks like those from dragon drones, which can rapidly destroy cover by burning vegetation, exposing forces and equipment. The strategic importance of vegetation cover has made it a frequent target in modern conflicts to disrupt enemy concealment and defensive positions.

Why in news?

Dragon drones have been used to burn vegetation cover in the Russia-Ukraine war, undermining troop concealment and exposing military assets to enemy fire.

Visakhapatnam Naval Base

Visakhapatnam is home to the Eastern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, one of its three major operational commands. It is located on the east coast of India, along the Bay of Bengal. The base supports naval operations in the Indo-Pacific region and hosts several key naval exercises, including Exercise Malabar. Visakhapatnam has a natural harbor and extensive dockyard facilities, enabling maintenance of large naval vessels and submarines. It plays a strategic role in India’s maritime security and power projection in the Bay of Bengal and beyond.

Why in news?

The 2024 Exercise Malabar was conducted off Visakhapatnam, utilizing its strategic naval base and harbor facilities for complex maritime drills.

VSHORADS Missiles

VSHORADS stands for Very Short Range Air Defence System. These missiles are designed to target low-altitude aerial threats such as helicopters, drones, and low-flying aircraft within a range of about 5-8 km. They are man-portable and can be deployed quickly by infantry units. The missile system uses infrared homing for target tracking and is equipped with proximity fuses for enhanced hit probability. Indigenous production of VSHORADS missiles under the DcPP model represents advancement in Indias short-range air defence capabilities.

Why in news?

VSHORADS missiles were recently flight-tested by DRDO and produced by private industry partners under the DcPP framework, demonstrating successful indigenous manufacturing of critical defence systems.

Y-junction (Depsang Bulge)

The Y-junction in the Depsang Bulge is a critical fork in the plateau’s terrain where patrol routes diverge towards multiple Patrolling Points (PPs). It functions as a tactical choke point controlling access to remote border areas. Control over the Y-junction allows forces to monitor and restrict movement across the plateau effectively. The junction’s name derives from its shape resembling the letter “Y,” with one branch leading toward the Karakoram Pass and the other toward the Siachen Glacier region. The junction was a flashpoint in the 2020 standoff, where Chinese troops established a blockade, preventing Indian patrols from reaching certain PPs.

Why in news?

The Y-junction blockade was lifted as part of the October 2024 agreement between India and China to resume patrols in the Depsang Bulge.

Awards, Honours, Personalities, Books, Sports etc.

Awards, Honours, Personalities, Books, Sports etc.

National Film Awards Committee

The National Film Awards Committee is a panel of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry, appointed by the Directorate of Film Festivals. The committee is responsible for selecting recipients of various awards, including the prestigious Dadasaheb Phalke Award. Members typically include filmmakers, critics, actors, and scholars. The committee’s composition changes annually to maintain impartiality and diversity. It assesses films across languages and regions, reflecting India’s cinematic diversity. The committee also ensures adherence to guidelines and maintains the awards’ integrity. Its decisions influence careers and set benchmarks for excellence in Indian cinema.

Why in news?

The committee selected Mithun Chakraborty as the 2024 recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, announced ahead of the 70th National Film Awards.

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005

The 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to Barry Marshall and Robin Warren for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. This marked shift in medical understanding and treatment, replacing surgery with antibiotic therapy. The award brought into light the importance of challenging established scientific dogma. Their work has saved millions from invasive procedures and chronic illness. The Nobel Committee recognized the impact of their discovery on global health, emphasizing the role of microorganisms in chronic diseases previously attributed to lifestyle factors.

Why in news?

The 2005 Nobel Prize remains relevant as Barry Marshalls story is used to illustrate scientific breakthroughs during recent Nobel Prize discussions.

Recurve Archery

Recurve archery uses a bow with tips that curve away from the archer when unstrung, providing more power and speed to the arrow. It is the only archery discipline featured in the Olympic Games. The recurve bow dates back to ancient civilizations such as the Mongols and Persians. Modern recurve bows are made from advanced materials like carbon and fiberglass. Archers use sights, stabilizers, and finger tabs for precision. The sport requires strength, technique, and mental focus. Recurve archery competitions include individual, team, and mixed team events, with distances typically set at 70 meters in Olympic formats.

Why in news?

Dola Banerjees gold medal and Deepika Kumaris silver medal were both achieved in recurve archery, the Olympic discipline.

Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus) Medallion

The Swarna Kamal or Golden Lotus is a prestigious medallion awarded at the National Film Awards in India. Designed to symbolize purity and excellence, it features a lotus flower crafted in gold-plated metal. The Swarna Kamal is presented in various categories, including the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for lifetime achievement. The medallion’s design incorporates traditional Indian motifs and is produced by the Government of Indias Directorate of Film Festivals. It serves as a symbol of the highest recognition in Indian cinema and is accompanied by a shawl and cash prize in the Dadasaheb Phalke Award category.

Why in news?

The Swarna Kamal medallion is part of the award package given to Mithun Chakraborty at the 70th National Film Awards in October 2024.

Vaidya Shri Devendra Triguna

Vaidya Shri Devendra Triguna is a prominent Ayurvedic practitioner and scholar from India. He belongs to a family with a long tradition of Ayurvedic practice, tracing back several generations. He has authored numerous books and research papers on Ayurveda and has been involved in policy advocacy to integrate Ayurveda into modern healthcare. Triguna has received several national awards for his contributions to Ayurveda and traditional medicine. He has also played a key role in international forums promoting Ayurveda’s global acceptance and recognition as a complementary healthcare system.

Why in news?

He is the President of the All India Ayurvedic Congress, leading efforts to promote Ayurveda at national and international levels.