Polity & Governance

84th Constitutional Amendment

The 84th Constitutional Amendment , enacted in 2001, extended the freeze on delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies until after the Census post-2026. Initially imposed in 1976 during the Emergency, the freeze aimed to prevent states with successful population control from losing representation. It amended Articles 81 and 170, governing Lok Sabha and State Assembly composition. The amendment restricts constituency boundary changes or seat redistribution based on Census data only after 2026, maintaining existing political boundaries for over two decades. This affects electoral representation and delays the implementation of demographic-based reforms like womens reservation.

Why in news?

The amendment is very important in current debates on electoral reforms, as delimitation and seat redistribution cannot occur before the 2026 Census, impacting political representation and reservation policies.

Antitrust Remedies in Technology Cases

Antitrust remedies in technology cases involve legal actions to prevent monopolistic practices and promote competition. These remedies can include restrictions on data collection , forced data sharing, or operational changes to limit market dominance. Courts may impose ongoing oversight mechanisms, such as technical committees, to enforce compliance. Such remedies are complex due to the technical nature of digital markets and require continuous monitoring. Historically, antitrust remedies have evolved from structural breaks (like company divestitures) to behavioral remedies involving detailed operational restrictions. Technology antitrust cases often focus on data control, platform neutrality, and interoperability.

Why in news?

The DOJ’s proposal for Google includes antitrust remedies requiring technical oversight to ensure compliance with new operational and data restrictions.

Assam Accord

The Assam Accord, signed in 1985, is a tripartite agreement involving the Government of India, Assam state government, and Assam Movement leaders. It established January 1, 1966, as the cutoff date for identifying foreigners in Assam. Migrants arriving after this date but before March 24, 1971 , were eligible for citizenship. The Accord aimed to address illegal immigration from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) while protecting indigenous Assamese culture. It led to legal measures including Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, which implements the Accords provisions concerning citizenship verification and rights in Assam.

Why in news?

The Assam Accord is in the spotlight due to the Supreme Court upholding Section 6A, reinforcing the Accords role in citizenship regulation and immigration issues in Assam.

Assam Accord Clause 5

Clause 5 of the 1985 Assam Accord established January 1, 1966 as the base date for identifying foreigners in Assam and March 24, 1971 as the cutoff for granting citizenship rights. Migrants entering Assam between these dates were excluded from electoral rolls for 10 years before restoration. This clause was a compromise addressing illegal immigration concerns during the Assam Movement, primarily targeting migrants from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). It influenced the creation of Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955 and remains a mainstay of Assam’s citizenship and electoral regulations.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court ruling in October 2024 cited Clause 5 to uphold the constitutionality of Section 6A and Assam Accord citizenship provisions.

Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988

The Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 prohibits transactions where property is held by one person but paid for by another, often to conceal ownership. It was amended in 2016 to strengthen enforcement, introduce stringent penalties including imprisonment, and allow retrospective confiscation of benami properties acquired before 2016. The Act is enforced by an Initiating Officer , Adjudicating Authority , and Appellate Tribunal . Section 3(2) prescribes jail terms for entering benami transactions. The Act targets black money and illegal property holdings by ensuring transparency in ownership and penalizing concealment.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court in October 2024 recalled its August 2022 order that declared parts of the Act unconstitutional, restoring the Acts provisions for fresh adjudication and allowing challenges to previous orders.

Frontier Regions (FRs)

The Frontier Regions (FRs) were six small administrative units adjacent to the seven tribal agencies of FATA. Unlike the agencies, which had tribal governance structures, the FRs were directly administered by the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa through political agents. The regions served as a transitional zone between settled districts and tribal agencies. Their populations were ethnically Pashtun, but the FRs had different legal and administrative setups compared to the tribal agencies. The FRs were ...