Colombia

The Republic of Colombia is a sovereign state located in the north-western region of South America, uniquely positioned with coastlines on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Renowned for its exceptional biodiversity, complex political history, and dynamic economic transformation, Colombia today stands as one of Latin America’s leading democratic republics. Its varied landscapes—ranging from the snow-capped Andes to the Amazon rainforest—have deeply influenced the nation’s cultural, economic, and political evolution.

Historical Background

Colombia’s recorded history begins with the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century, marked by the establishment of early settlements such as Santa Marta (1525) and Bogotá (1538). For nearly three centuries, Colombia formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, under Spanish colonial administration. The movement for independence began in the early 19th century, inspired by Enlightenment ideals and revolutions across the Americas.
On 20 July 1810, Colombia declared independence from Spain, and through the leadership of Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander, it became a central component of the Gran Colombia federation (1819–1830), encompassing modern-day Ecuador, Venezuela, and Panama. However, internal ideological divisions led to its dissolution in 1830, paving the way for the modern Colombian Republic.
The 19th and early 20th centuries were defined by political instability, civil wars, and rivalries between the Liberal and Conservative parties. One of the most violent episodes, La Violencia (1948–1958), resulted in over 200,000 deaths, leaving deep societal scars.
In the latter half of the 20th century, Colombia faced decades of armed conflict involving state forces, left-wing guerrilla groups such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN), and right-wing paramilitary organisations. These conflicts were heavily intertwined with the narcotics trade.
A landmark came in 2016, when a peace accord was signed between the government and FARC, leading to the group’s demobilisation and its conversion into a political party. The agreement also established the Special Jurisdiction for Peace and a Truth Commission to promote reconciliation. Although isolated violence persists, Colombia has made substantial progress towards post-conflict stabilisation and democratic consolidation.

Geography and Environment

Covering 1,138,910 square kilometres, Colombia ranks as the 27th largest country globally and shares borders with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Panama. It is the only South American country with access to two oceans, the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, giving it strategic maritime significance.
The nation’s geography is remarkably diverse:

• The Andean highlands, home to most of the population and major cities such as Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali.
• The Llanos (eastern plains), shared with Venezuela, dominated by grasslands and river systems.
• The Amazon rainforest in the south, rich in biodiversity.
• The coastal lowlands, featuring mangroves and coral reefs along both seaboards.

Pico Cristóbal Colón (5,730 m), in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range, is Colombia’s highest point.
Climate: Tropical in the lowlands and coastal zones, temperate in the highlands, and cold in mountainous regions.
Natural resources: Petroleum, coal, gold, emeralds, iron ore, natural gas, and hydropower potential.
Major rivers: Magdalena, Cauca, Orinoco, and Amazon tributaries, all vital for agriculture and transport.
Environmental challenges include deforestation, soil erosion, air pollution, and pesticide runoff. However, Colombia remains a biodiversity powerhouse, with over 50% forest cover and vast protected ecosystems. It is a signatory to the Paris Agreement, Convention on Biological Diversity, and Kyoto Protocol, reinforcing its commitment to sustainable development and conservation.

People and Society

In 2024, Colombia’s population reached approximately 49.6 million, ranking it among the most populous nations in Latin America. Population density is concentrated in the Andean and coastal regions, while the eastern plains and Amazonian zones remain sparsely populated.

• Urban population: 82.4%
• Median age: 32.7 years
• Life expectancy: 74.9 years
• Literacy rate: 96%

Ethnic composition:

• Mestizo and White: 87.6%
• Afro-Colombian: 6.8%
• Indigenous peoples: 4.3%
• Other/unspecified: 1.4%

Languages: Spanish (official, spoken by 98.9%) and 65 recognised indigenous languages.Religions: Roman Catholicism (63.6%), Protestantism (17.2%), non-religious (14.2%), and others (5%).
Education is compulsory until age 15, with an average school life expectancy of 14 years. The state allocates 5.3% of GDP to education, and universities such as the National University of Colombia and Los Andes University are among Latin America’s most prestigious.
Health indicators continue to improve: 97.5% of the population has access to safe drinking water, and 97% to modern sanitation. Health spending accounts for 9% of GDP, yet rural healthcare disparities persist, with maternal mortality remaining at 59 deaths per 100,000 births.

Government and Politics

Official name: República de ColombiaForm of government: Presidential republicCapital: BogotáPresident: Gustavo Francisco Petro Urrego (since 7 August 2022)
The 1991 Constitution established a strong presidential system based on separation of powers.

• Executive: The President serves a single four-year term and appoints cabinet ministers.
• Legislative: Bicameral Congress comprising the Senate (108 seats) and the House of Representatives (187 seats), both elected through proportional representation.
• Judiciary: The Supreme Court of Justice, Constitutional Court, and Council of State oversee civil law and constitutional matters.

Major political forces include:

• Historic Pact for Colombia (PHxC)
• Liberal Party (PL)
• Conservative Party (CP)
• Democratic Centre (CD)
• Radical Change (CR)
• Union Party for the People (Partido de la U)

Colombia’s electoral processes are recognised as transparent, reflecting strong institutional resilience and democratic continuity.

Economic Structure

Colombia’s economy is diverse and market-oriented, ranking among the largest in Latin America. Key sectors include agriculture, manufacturing, energy, mining, and services.

• GDP (PPP, 2024): $978.6 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $18,500
• Growth rate: 1.7%
• Inflation: 6.6%
• Public debt: 71.3% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 9.3%
• Industry: 23.1%
• Services: 58.2%

Exports: Crude oil, coal, coffee, gold, and refined petroleum.Main export partners: United States (27%), Panama (9%), India (5%), China (5%), and the Netherlands (4%).Imports: Refined petroleum, vehicles, aircraft, medical equipment, and pharmaceuticals.
Colombia is the world’s largest producer of emeralds and a major exporter of coffee and cut flowers. While growth has been steady since the 2000s, income inequality remains a critical challenge, reflected in a Gini coefficient of 53.9. Poverty affects about 33% of the population, though social welfare programmes and fiscal reforms aim to reduce disparities.

Energy and Infrastructure

Colombia has achieved universal electrification, with hydropower contributing over 60% of electricity generation. Fossil fuels provide 34%, while biomass, solar, and wind collectively account for about 4%. The nation produces roughly 800,000 barrels of oil daily and holds 2.036 billion barrels in proven reserves.
Coal production, exceeding 52 million tonnes annually, remains a key export commodity. Transport infrastructure includes 661 airports, a 2,141 km rail network, and major ports such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Buenaventura. Internet connectivity covers 77% of the population, while mobile penetration exceeds 150 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants.

Military and Security

Colombia maintains one of the largest and best-trained armed forces in South America.

• Active military personnel: approx. 260,000
• National Police: approx. 150,000
• Defence expenditure: 3.4% of GDP

The Military Forces of Colombia include the Army, Navy, and Aerospace Force, supported by the National Police under the Ministry of Defence. Since the 1970s, women have been fully integrated into defence roles, and by 2023, over 36,000 women served across security institutions.
The country enjoys close defence cooperation with the United States, designated as a Major Non-NATO Ally in 2022. Security operations continue against FARC dissidents, ELN insurgents, and transnational criminal networks, such as Tren de Aragua.

Space and Science

The Colombian Space Commission (CCE), founded in 2006, and the private Colombian Space Agency (AEC) spearhead national space initiatives, focusing on satellite communications, remote sensing, and aerospace research. Colombia collaborates with India, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the United States, and participates in the Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency (ALCE).

Culture and Heritage

Colombia’s culture represents a fusion of Indigenous, African, and European legacies, expressed through its art, music, and literature. The nation is home to Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez, author of One Hundred Years of Solitude, a defining work of magical realism.
National symbols: The Andean condor and the tricolour flag of yellow, blue, and red, symbolising sovereignty, justice, and sacrifice. The national anthem, “Himno Nacional de la República de Colombia”, was written by Rafael Núñez and composed by Oreste Sindici.
Colombia boasts nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Cartagena’s Colonial Walled City, San Agustín Archaeological Park, and Chiribiquete National Park. Its cultural vibrancy is celebrated through diverse music genres—cumbia, vallenato, and salsa—and festivals such as the Barranquilla Carnival.

International Relations

Colombia is an active participant in global diplomacy, committed to multilateralism and regional cooperation. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), Organization of American States (OAS), OECD, Pacific Alliance, and World Trade Organization (WTO), and holds observer status in CARICOM and associate membership in Mercosur.