Chad

The Republic of Chad, a vast landlocked nation in Central Africa, is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Encompassing more than 1.28 million square kilometres, Chad is the largest landlocked country in Africa and the 22nd largest in the world. Despite its considerable territory and resource endowment, it remains one of the world’s least developed countries, constrained by political instability, poverty, and recurrent insecurity across its borders.

Historical Background

Chad’s history extends deep into antiquity, with evidence of early human habitation found in the Saharan rock art of the Ennedi Plateau and the Lakes of Ounianga. By the 9th century, several powerful Sahelian kingdoms had emerged, most notably the Kanem-Bornu Empire, which controlled trans-Saharan trade routes for nearly a thousand years. The empire’s prosperity was based on the trade of slaves, salt, and ivory, and its influence extended well beyond the Lake Chad Basin.
The Kanem-Bornu Empire reached its height between the 11th and 16th centuries before declining under internal conflict and external invasions. In the late 19th century, the Sudanese warlord Rabih az-Zubayr conquered the region but was later defeated by French colonial forces in 1900. Other regional powers, including the Bagirmi and Ouaddai (Wadai) kingdoms, were also annexed by the French between 1897 and 1909, consolidating French dominance.
By 1910, Chad became part of French Equatorial Africa, though colonial administration brought limited development, forced labour, and minimal education. Independence was achieved on 11 August 1960, with François Tombalbaye as the first president.
Post-independence, Chad faced prolonged civil conflict and authoritarian rule. The civil war (1965–1979) was marked by divisions between the predominantly Muslim north and the Christian and animist south. Hissène Habré seized power in 1982, ruling through systematic repression until his overthrow by Idriss Déby Itno in 1990. Déby’s three-decade rule witnessed oil exploitation, intermittent reforms, and recurrent insurgencies.
Following Déby’s death in 2021, his son Mahamat Idriss Déby assumed leadership through a Transitional Military Council (TMC), dissolving parliament and suspending the constitution. After a national dialogue in 2022 and a constitutional referendum in December 2023, the country adopted a new constitution. In May 2024, Mahamat Déby was elected president, signalling a formal return to constitutional order but under continued military dominance.

Geography and Environment

Chad’s terrain ranges from the arid Sahara Desert in the north to savannahs and grasslands in the centre and fertile plains in the south. The highest point, Emi Koussi (3,445 m), lies in the Tibesti Mountains, while the Djourab Depression (160 m) marks the country’s lowest elevation.
The country’s defining natural feature, Lake Chad, once one of Africa’s largest freshwater lakes, has dramatically shrunk since the 1960s due to climate change and unsustainable water use. Its area now fluctuates between 10,000 and 25,000 square kilometres, though it remains a lifeline for agriculture, fisheries, and livestock across several nations.
Chad’s climate is highly variable: the south experiences tropical rainfall of up to 1,200 mm annually, while the north receives less than 50 mm. Frequent droughts, sandstorms (harmattan), and locust invasions exacerbate food insecurity.
Natural resources include petroleum, gold, uranium, limestone, fish, and natron (salt). Forests cover only 3.2% of the land, while 40% is used for agriculture and grazing. Major environmental issues include desertification, deforestation, and water scarcity, aggravated by population growth and poor management of natural resources.

Demographics and Society

In 2024, Chad’s population was estimated at 19.1 million, growing at an annual rate of 3%, one of the highest in the world. The median age is 16.7 years, highlighting a predominantly youthful population. Most inhabitants live in the southwestern regions, especially around N’Djamena and the Lake Chad Basin, while the northern desert remains sparsely populated.
The nation is ethnically diverse, with over 120 ethnic groups. The principal communities include Sara (30.5%), Kanembu/Bornu/Buduma (9.8%), Arabs (9.7%), and Wadai/Maba/Masalit (7%). French and Arabic serve as official languages, while local languages such as Sara and Kanuri are widely spoken.
Religious affiliation mirrors regional divisions: Islam predominates in the north (52.1%), whereas Christianity—mainly Protestant (23.9%) and Catholic (20%)—is prevalent in the south. A small proportion adhere to traditional African beliefs.
Social indicators reveal severe developmental challenges:

• Life expectancy: 60 years
• Infant mortality: 62.5 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 5.24 children per woman
• Maternal mortality: 748 deaths per 100,000 live births
• Literacy rate: 30.6% (male 44.5%, female 18.6%)
• Access to electricity: 11.7%
• Improved sanitation: 18.4%

Urbanisation stands at 24%, expanding rapidly due to migration from rural areas. Poverty, low human capital, and gender inequality remain pervasive social barriers.

Political Structure and Governance

Chad is governed as a presidential republic, with the President acting as both head of state and government. The 2024 Constitution re-established a bicameral legislature comprising the National Assembly (188 members) and a Senate (69 members).
In the 2024 presidential elections, Mahamat Idriss Déby won 61% of the vote, defeating Succes Masra and Albert Padacké. Allamaye Halina was appointed Prime Minister shortly thereafter. Notably, women hold 33.5% of National Assembly seats and 36% in the Senate, reflecting gradual improvement in gender representation.
Chad’s judicial system combines civil and customary law, with the Supreme Court and Supreme Council of the Judiciary at its apex. However, governance continues to suffer from weak institutions, political centralisation, and restricted freedoms. Administratively, the country is divided into 23 provinces, including Borkou, Guera, Kanem, Logone Oriental, and Tibesti.

Economic Overview

Despite being rich in oil, Chad’s economy remains fragile and underdeveloped. Oil exports account for over 90% of foreign revenue, yet 44.8% of the population lives below the poverty line. In 2024, GDP (PPP) was estimated at $52.9 billion, with a real growth rate of 3.7%, supported by oil production and agricultural recovery.
Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 32.2%
• Industry: 29.7%
• Services: 31.6%

Agriculture remains the largest employer, producing sorghum, millet, groundnuts, yams, and livestock. Oil exploitation since 2003 has transformed fiscal revenues but remains vulnerable to global price volatility.
Major trading partners (2023):

• Exports: UAE (26%), China (19%), Germany (17%), Netherlands (13%), France (10%)
• Imports: China (28%), UAE (23%), Turkey (10%), France (9%), India (5%)

The national currency is the Central African CFA franc (XAF), shared with other CEMAC members. Chad’s public debt remains manageable under a G20 debt restructuring framework, though diversification beyond oil is limited.

Energy, Infrastructure and Communications

Energy access remains severely constrained. Electricity coverage is 11.7% nationally and 1.3% in rural areas, with diesel generation (94%) dominating the power mix. Renewable energy contributes less than 3%, though solar projects are expanding under international partnerships.
Transport infrastructure is underdeveloped: the country has 44 airports (few paved), no railway system, and poorly maintained road networks. These constraints hamper internal trade and regional connectivity. Mobile penetration stands at 68 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, while internet access remains low at 13%, concentrated mainly in urban centres.

Defence and Security

The Chadian National Army (ANT), numbering 35,000–40,000 troops, is among Central Africa’s most capable military forces. It includes the Ground Forces, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, and the elite Presidential Guard (GDSSIE). Defence spending amounts to about 3% of GDP, reflecting Chad’s focus on counter-insurgency and border protection.
Chad contributes 1,000–1,500 troops to the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) combating Boko Haram and ISIS–West Africa around the Lake Chad Basin. Domestically, it continues to face insurgent threats from rebel groups such as FACT and UFDD, particularly along its northern and eastern borders.

Foreign Relations and International Role

Chad maintains active participation in the African Union (AU), CEMAC, United Nations (UN), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and Francophonie (OIF). It plays a key role in regional counterterrorism and peacekeeping operations. Relations with France, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates are strong, especially in the areas of defence cooperation and development assistance.

Culture and National Identity

Chadian culture reflects a vibrant blend of African, Arab, and French influences. Traditional music, dance, and oral storytelling remain central to social life. The national flag, composed of blue, gold, and red, symbolises the sky, desert, and unity. The national anthem “La Tchadienne”, adopted in 1960, celebrates independence and resilience.
National symbols include:

• Animals: goat (north) and lion (south)
• Colours: blue, yellow, red
• Motto: Unité, Travail, Progrès (“Unity, Work, Progress”)

Chad’s natural and cultural heritage is represented by two UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Lakes of Ounianga and the Ennedi Massif, both renowned for their unique ecosystems and prehistoric art.