Answers: GS Mains Test Series – 2016 : GS Paper-1 (Set-1)

1.       What are the Harappan socio-cultural elements that have continued in later India? In the light of these elements, do you think that the time has come to put the Aryan invasion theory to rest? Discuss critically.

Answer

There are a number of Harappan socio-cultural elements which have continued in later India. Some of these include:

• Potter’s wheel, carts, boats etc.
• The use of water-jars and the habit of throwing away the goblets of terracotta after use.
• The methods of house building, particularly the Harappan use of stucco.
• Practice of building ritual bathing tanks and of the large number of bathrooms (but no lavatories)
• The ritual items and cults such as the mother-goddess, lingas, yonis, proto-Siva and swastikas
• Trade in ivory and cotton and precious items.
• Binary and decimal system and other measurements and weights which were used by the Harappans.
• Use of dice, Kajal for the eyes that was kept in jars with sticks in them, ivory combs, bangles and the use of garments for both men and women that needed no pinning.
• The breeds of cattle depicted on the seals of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Despite these facts of cultural continuity, there is a popular and oft-quoted theory of Aryan invasion. The continuity of these traditions strongly supports the argument that the so called Aryan invasion either did not happen at all or could not destroy at least the socio-cultural traditions of the Harappan society. The extinction of the Indus Valley Civilization on account of replacement by the Aryans or the so called human massacre at Mohenjo-Daro have never been convincingly proved. Also, it remains unlikely that the nomadic Aryans remained unimpressed by the magnificence and abundance of the Indus Valley and destroyed the cities to establish their own primitive pastoralism. If this was the case, it would have been unique case of replacement of a full grown urban culture with a primitive culture. Thus, the time has come that the Aryan invasion theory is put to rest.

2.       While keeping in focus Kautilya’s Arthashastra, examine the fort architecture of ancient India. What major changes occurred in the same after advent of Muslim conquerors? Examine.

Answer

Arthashastra has listed the following types of forts:

• Jala-durga(Water fort)
• Antardvipa-durga(island fortress): surrounded by natural (sea or river) water bodies.
• Sthala-durga(plain fortress): surrounded by artificial moats or irrigated by a river.
• Giri-durga(Hill fort)
• Guha-durga: Located in a valley surrounded by hills, where the outposts and the signal towers are located.
• Vana-durga(Forest fort): Surrounded by a dense forest.
• Mahi-durga(Earthen fort)
• Nri-durga(Human fort) This is defended by a large number of loyal and experienced warriors.

When the Muslims invaded, there was a change in the style of construction of forts. The Muslims introduced the idea of construction of a citadel in the centre and putting in more area between the citadel and the walls. Example can be cited of Golkonda and the Berar fort. Further, gates of medieval Indian forts were highly decorated. The walls of the forts were often looked higher from the outside than the inside as the forts made use of the natural rock formations on hills. The main gate to the forts was located mostly facing north direction, this was to avoid its deterioration by the rains, winds and the sun.

3.       Different regions of India have contributed to the advancement of social and religious reform in the past to make the culture of India a composite one.’ Analyze.

Answer-1:

Like the contribution in Literature and higher learning, similar contribution by each region can be seen in the long list of religious and social leaders.  While Rama and Krishna, the two ideals of the Hindus were born in Uttar Pradesh,; Bihar gave birth to two of the greatest religious reformers, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.  In South India the devotional poetry of the Saiva saints (Nayanars) and the Vaishnavasaints (Alvars) gave an impetus to the path of devotion.

When Hinduism was plagued by the prevalence of left-handed practices (Vamamarga), Sankaracharya, who was born in Malabar, looked upon the whole of India from Cape Camorin to the Himalayas as his field of action. He was able to purge Hinduism of the baneful influence of Tantrikism and brought about cultural unity of India by establishing four great monasteries locating them almost at the four corners of India. One of these was in the South at Sringeri in Mysore, another at Puri on the east coast, the third at Dwarka in Kathiawar on the west coast and the fourth at Badarinatha in the Himalayas.

Answer -2:

The composite fabric of Indian civilization has been woven with elements and shades of variable textures and colours. Since ancient times India has represented a melting-pot of races and cultures, dogmas and isms. Like a vast perennial river the culture of India continues to flow having been enriched by countless tributary streams of regional and sub-regional characters since time immemorial.

The socio-religious movements occurred throughout India in the past have largely contributed to the ceaseless continuation and resilience of Indian culture. To name a few, the Arya Samaj in the west, the Brahmo Samaj in the east, the Theosophical movement in the South, the Aligarh movement in the North in the 19^th century set the wind of renaissance blow across India and contributed to strengthening and enrichment of Indian culture. The Hindus, the Muslim, the Parsis, the Sikhs, the Christians waged reform movements for integration with the pan-Indian culture. Towering persons like Raja Rammohan Ray, Dayananda Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Henry Vivian Derozio, Atmaram Pandurang, Annie Besant, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule, Syed Ahmad Khan fought on their respective socio-religious issues for oneness of India through reforms and renaissance.

The underlying objectives of socio-religious movements in the past were purgation of cultural and religious maladies thereby creating national consciousness and humanitarian outlooks which squarely contributed to composite character of Indian culture.

4.      To what extent, the British colonialist regime was responsible for the discrimination, abuse, and social and economic marginalization faced by millions of Indians belonging to ‘denotified and nomadic tribes’. Discuss critically.

Answer-1

The discrimination, abuse, and social and economic marginalisation faced by millions of Indians belonging to ‘denotified and nomadic tribes’ (DNT-NTs) have their roots in 19th century British colonialism when such tribes were ‘notified’ by the British as being inherently “criminal”.

The British had sought to control and contain these landless and nomadic “criminal tribes” through a series of Criminal Tribes Acts propagated throughout the different geographical and administrative units of India. The first act, was passed in 1871 which applied only to areas in north India. In 1911, the measures were extended to all of British controlled India, and altered to include ever-more draconian features.

These Acts gave sweeping powers to the local governments to recommend that certain “tribes, gangs, or classes” be declared as being “addicted to the systematic commission of non-bailable offences”. Once a tribe became notified as belonging to a criminal class, all members of the group were required to register at a specific time and place with the local magistrate. Anyone failing to register would be charged with a crime under the Indian Penal Code.

Therefore, marginalisation of tribes in the nature of notified and de-notified got an impetus from the colonial era in the form of draconian acts.

Answer-2:

That criminal mindset could be caste or community-specific sounds vague and more criminal. The British regime in the 19^th century in India dared to notify upon its own notion some tribes of India as branded criminals. It made stringent measures in the guise of series of Criminal Tribes Acts to control and contain these landless and wandering tribes. The successful suppression of Thugees by 1850s prompted British to use similar methods to tackle such issues on a nationwide scale. The Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) 1871 was the maiden draconian approach towards dehumanisation of certain tribes of north India and the subsequent acts in general and the one in 1911 in particular extended to the whole of British India and were more draconian in their content and application against the British-notified tribes in various parts of India.

Such acts greatly empowered the local governments to term some tribes/gangs as perpetrators of non-bailable offences. Compulsory registration of the tribes, forced movement of these notified tribes to reformatory settlements- de facto labour camps made these tribes an easy prey of colonial exploitation and discrimination. It also led to widespread pauperisation of the notified tribes. Those who failed to register were charged with a crime under the Indian Penal Code. The camp-dwellers, in the name of rhetoric of social reform by the British, were treated as labourers. The CTA was repealed in 1952, thus, removed the notification on the tribes.

5.       To what extent, the use of phrase ‘revolutionary terrorist’ for some of India’s most loved freedom struggle heroes is justified? Discuss in the light of different connotations associated with this phrase. Do you think it has led to marginalization of our freedom struggle heroes? Argue.

Answer-1

The phrase ‘revolutionary terrorism’ was recently in news due to the uproar in the parliament over Bipin Chandra’s India’s Struggle for Independence book wherein it has referred to Bhagat Singh and other freedom lovers as Revolutionary Terrorists. The phrase “revolutionary terrorism” has also been used in context of the Alipore Bomb Case. In the case freedom fighters, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Magistrate Kingsford, known for his harsh verdicts on nationalists.

The phrase “revolutionary terrorists” has been used for those involved in armed struggle against the British Empire. Historians such Ashok Mukherjee call for usage of ‘militant nationalism’ rather than revolutionary terrorism, as these young men in 1900s were discontent freedom fighters with the Congress’ method of “appealing” to the British Government for more autonomy for the country.

By calling the militant nationalists as revolutionary terrorists, historians are of the view that they would join the band wagon of the British Government who dubbed most of the freedom fighters involved in armed struggle for Independence as terrorists. In this way, the true nationalists would be marginalised and their contribution and sacrifice would be washed away.

Answer-2

The epithet of revolutionary before the word ‘terrorists’ gives it a completely different meaning from what terrorists mean today. Revolutionary terrorists or Krantikari Aatankwadis in Hindi refer to those fearless freedom fighters who took the path of individual heroism and unparalleled bravery in India’s struggle against the British. As such, revolutionary terrorism is considered as a strand of the National Movement and made abiding contribution to it. The use of the term terrorists with the name of revered freedom fighters like V.D.Savarkar, C.R.Das, Bhagat Singh trio, Shyamaji Krishnavarma signifies their constructive aggressive and radical approach to free India from the British rule. The term terrorist and revolutionary is used interchangeably in Indian history and referred to those who resorted to violent and radical means to achieve freedom from the tyrannical British rule.

Dubbed also as radical nationalists, revolutionary socialists, this clan of freedom fighters wanted radical change, disagreed with the pacifism of the Congress and Gandhi’s philosophy of ahimsa, believed in the use of guns and bombs to terrorise the British, and thought nothing of sacrificing their lives for the motherland. In the post-non-cooperation movement they were influenced by Bolshevik revolution.

Upon the basis of understanding complexities of India’s freedom struggle and historical personalities, it can be safely concluded that the use of revolutionary terrorists with the names of some great freedom fighters is not pejorative and in no way marginalise the stature of India’s freedom struggle heroes.

6.      Do you agree that the 19th century socio-religious reform movement played role of a catalyst factor in the rise and growth of communalism in India? Give arguments.

Answer-1:

The intrusion and discrimination by colonial culture and ideology led to introspection among Indians about strengths and weaknesses of their own religions and cultures towards the beginning of 19^th century. The wind of renaissance started across the social, cultural and religious ambiences in the country. The Brahmo Samaj, the Paramahansa Mandali, the Parthana Samaj, the Arya Samaj were some socio-religious movements of the Hindus, the Aligarh movement, Wahabi movement and Deoband movement of the Muslims, Singh Sabha of the Sikhs, Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha of the Parisis aimed at reforming their respective religion by removing superstitions and orthodoxy. Although religious reforms were a major concern of these movements, none of them were exclusively religious in character. All of them wanted to spread consciousness among the masses; fought against evil practices like caste system, superstitions, illiteracy, discrimination against women to create a well-cultured society with modern outlook.

Religion was a dominant ideology during the said times and it was not possible to carry out any social reform without adhering to religious life of the people. Neither the Hindu nor the Muslim revival and reform movement launched diatribe against each other as their sole motto was to struggle against the backward elements of their own religion and culture. Rather, such movements propagated for Hindu-Muslim unity and universal brotherhood. However, individual assertion of own religions, especially by the Hindus and the Muslims, post-1857 British policy prepared the ground of impending communalism which culminated in the bloody partition of India.

Answer-2:

The revivalist movements of 19th century created mutual suspicion and a sense of insecurity amongst each other unconsciously contributed to the rise and growth of communalism. Among the Muslims the school of Waliullah of Delhi, the Deoband School were active in restoring pristine purity and religious fervour of the Muslim community. Among the Hindus the revival of Shivaji and Ganapati festival, the Dharma Sabha of Radha Kant Deb of Calcutta tried to glorify Hinduism against the Christianity, but ultimately due to communication gap it sent a wrong message to Muslims, this was further added by ‘suddhi movement’. The love for Hindu ideals and institution, the pride in Hindu religion and philosophy, consciously or unconsciously contributed to the sense of superiority. Vivekanand said that Vedanta philosophy is the supreme of all philosophy. Both the parallel movement of the two communities had the common aim: to protect and promote their own religion. The lack communication, they lost their ultimate aim of exterminating the Britishers. They failed to communicate their message to the masses. The economic backwardness of the country, the medieval outlook of the masses and colossal neglect of their education further helped in widening the communication gap. The religious movement was to be more social and philosophical but it became more religious. The real impact of these schools directly led to the self-glorification, and a creation of contra-culture. It prompted the British to misinterpret and use the communication gap for their policy of divide and rule.

7.       Discuss the circumstances in which the Open Door Policy with China was proposed. What were the implications of this policy on China and West? Was there any substantial impact of Open Door Policy on India also? Elucidate.

After losing two Opium wars to British, the Chinese also lost a war to Japan in 1895. By the end of 19th century, it appeared that China would be partitioned and colonized by imperialist powers such as France, Britain, Japan and Russia. However, United States did not want this to happen. United States not only wanted equal rights of trade with China but also recognized the benefit of an independent China. Thus, United States proposed the so called Open Door Policy with China.

It proposed:

• Keeping China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis.
• China was permitted to collect tariffs and engage in open and equal trade.

Outcome of Open Door Policy

This policy was outlined by US Secretary of State John Hay and was principally in place between the late 19th and early 20th century. However, it was just a principle, never formally adopted via treaty or international law. This is why; it is also called a “Pseudo-treaty”. All European powers accepted it in principle but it was never an official / written agreement. Open Door Policy arguably allowed China to remain an independent country and saved it from imperialistic powers taking over.

China also benefited as it was able to trade with many nations, drawing major economic growth. The system of free trading rights prevented foreign nations from dividing China into separate colonies. However, the Chinese lost parts of their culture and tradition.

Implications for India

India was relatively immune to the effects of open door policy. However, a kind of open door policy enunciated by India was by our own government in 1991 through economic reforms in the form of LPG.

8.      Do you agree with the view that today’s problems in Middle East and African continent stem from Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Berlin Conference respectively? Are there any similarities and differences between the two? Discuss.

Yes, I agree with this view. While the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 led to European competition for territory in Africa or Scramble for Africa; the Sykes-Picot agreement was too kind of scramble between European Powers (France & Britain for hegemony in Middle East.

The Berlin Conference encouraged European nations to aggressively colonize and exploit Africa’s human and natural bounties or to lose their claims under the Principle of Effectivity. It nearly legitimised the process of colonialisation in Africa. The fragmented African politico-geographical today is thus a colonial vestige in Africa. By 1914, the conference participants had fully divided Africa among themselves into fifty unnatural and artificial States.

Unde3r the Sykes-Picot Agreement, signed between British and France, the Colonial powers signed to divide the huge land of the Ottoman Empire between them and retain their colonial interest over the region. The Sykes-Picot Agreement is viewed as the source of the modern map of West Asia. The Agreement did not take into consideration the aspirations of the people nor the commitments given to the Jews, Kurds and Arabs.

The similarity between these two is that in both colonial pacts were meant for perpetuating European domination in Africa mostly for pecuniary gains. Difference is that while Sykes-Picot favoured only Britain and France, whereas the Berlin Conference aimed to establish the economic interests of many European countries in Africa.

9.      “In comparison to rural poverty, the urban poverty in India is both underestimated and inadequately addressed by public policy”. Do you agree with this statement? While supporting your view with arguments, give policy suggestions.

There is a widespread perception that poverty in India is concentrated in the rural areas. However, this does not hold relevance today in India any more. Urban poverty is qualitatively different from its rural counterpart, and therefore requires different policy interventions.

Cities are the best place to foster poverty and destitution at a large scale and extent is unseen. Urban poverty in India adds a lot of issues such as diseases, violence, disintegration of communities and the social fabric.

Suggestion to tackle urban poverty:

Inclusive Cities

The poor and lower income groups must be brought into the mainstream in cities.  This would discourage creation of slums in the cities.

Urban Governance

To enact the 74^th Amendment in spirit, it is necessary for true devolution of power and responsibilities from the states to the local and metropolitan bodies.

Financing

Devolution has to be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will reduce cities’ dependence on the Centre and the states and unleash internal revenue sources.

Affordable housing

India can meet the challenge through a set of policies and incentives that will bridge the gap between price and affordability.

10.   Establish the link between demographic factors and communalism while giving suitable examples. Is the interplay of demography and communalism responsible for ethnic tension in North-eastern region? To what extent? Discuss.

Answer-1:

Communalism is religious fanaticism by a community. Demography is structural division of the community. The more the number of the members of a given community, the more aggressive communalism is. When population growth is disaggregated on religious lines, it provides fodder for religious extremists who in turn fan communalism in the country to gain narrow political motives.  It is viewed that uneven demographic changes breeds competing ethnic and communal interests in a multiethnic country like India. The community reduced in number gets worried that their diminishing number would cost them political clout. India-Pakistan partition in 1947witnessed colossal dislocation of about 15 million people and unleashed the most ghastly Hindu-Muslim violence. The British were accountable for emphasizing religion in the census. There is a rising tension among extreme Hindus regarding the growing number of Muslim population in India which rose from a meagre 35 million in 1951 to 17.22 percent in 2011.

Alleged marginalisation of ethnic communities in Indian politics, improper land holdings, etc. is responsible for brewing ethnic tension in the north east region of India. In 2012, there were ethnic clashes between Bodos (Tribal, Christian & Hindu faith) and Muslims. Ethnic tensions between Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims erupted into a riot in Kokrajhar in July 2012, in which four Bodo boys were killed by unidentified miscreants in Joypur. The distinguished tribal population, ethnic diversity and large scale Bangladeshi immigration has changed the demography of North eastern states which have passed through many communal clashes in recent times.

Answer-1

Demographic factors means socio-economic characteristics of a population expressed statistically, such as age, sex, education level, income level, marital status, occupation, religion, birth rate, death rate, average size of a family, average age at marriage.

With respect to the fact about demographic factors being responsible for communalism in India is a question of concern. As one of the factor being religion definitely contributes to communal tensions in a region. The partition of India and Pakistan on the lines of religion is a classic example of demographic factor leading to communalism.

A.R. Desai very well stated that “India presents a spectacle of Museum of tongues”. Still, there is less accommodation and commingling of cultures which leads to clashes on ethnic lines.

The ethnic clashes in north-east is not to be attributed solely to religion but even to other factors such as backwardness which keeps them behind the rest of India.

A serious effort must be made to integrate India in true spirit and live up to ‘unity in diversity’ in reality.

11.    Why a section of our society is raising its voice against laws such as Section 498-A of Indian Penal Code and Section 125 of Code of Criminal Procedure? While analyzing their relevance in today’s context, discuss various issues from point of view of those affected by these provisions positively and negatively.

Answer

Section 498-A states, that whoever being the husband or relative of the husband of woman, subjects such woman to cruelty shall be punished with the imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and also be liable to fine. Though the section is one of the few judicial provisions to safeguard the interests of married women in India, it is evident from its three-decades of working that it is being widely misused and men are now facing legal terrorism. In the absence of any stringent law against women at fault, this section is grossly misused by some notorious women for achieving their selfish motives. As per NCRB 2012 report nearly 2 lakh people were arrested in India under Section 498-A and nearly a quarter of those arrested were women. Higher number of charge-sheeting (94 percent) and very low rate of conviction (13 percent) expose the degree of misuse of the act. The Act though made to protect women from domestic violence, is protecting in most cases the women who perpetrate domestic violence upon their husbands and in-laws.

Section-125 of the Code of Criminal Procedures, aims to alleviate the economic condition of neglected wives, the divorcees, children and needy parents. The section sometimes comes in conflict with Personal laws. The section is also being grossly misused by unscrupulous women at large. Although the Section bars women in adultery from awards of maintenance, often such cases are not established and innocent husbands become victim of monetary exploitation.

12.    “Palliative care in India is still at an early stage of development and faces numerous problems.” Discuss while throwing light upon obstacles in the growth of palliative care in the country.

Answer-1:

Palliative care is a philosophy of care which is a highly structured system for delivering care to persons with life-threatening or debilitating illness which ranges from diagnosis till death and then into bereavement care for the family. Palliative care can assist in changing from a disease-focused approach to a patient-centered philosophy.

It is observed that there is a flaw in current health care systems wherein there is no communication about patient goals and preferences for care. When patients are asked what kind of care they want when serious and life-threatening disease occurs, their preferences include pain and symptom control, avoidance of prolongation of the dying process, a sense of control, concern for family burden, and an opportunity to strengthen relationships with loved ones.

The other issues which need to be addressed are that consent for palliative care must be obtained from competent patients and should not be assumed. Full disclosure is requisite so that the patient realizes that he or she will be cared by a multidisciplinary team.

An additional challenge to implementation of palliative care is the limited evidence for this specialty.

Answer-2:

Palliative care is a multidimensional medical care arrangement for people with serious illness and their families. It emphasizes on providing relief from the symptoms and pain and other psychosocial and spiritual problems. Palliative care in India introduced in 1990s is yet to be broad-based. Less than 1 percent of India’s 1.2 billion population has access to palliative care.  Health and drug control being in the State List, provisions for health care and for opioid access differ from state to state. Apart from limited opioid availability, obstacles like non-availability of inexpensive drugs, population density, poverty, geographical diversity; restrictive public policies regarding opioid prescription, lack of effective manpower at base level, limited national palliative care policy and lack of institutional interest in palliative care hamper the growth of palliative health care in India.

However, some recent developments in this regard have brought visible change in the scenario. The creation of a National Programme for Palliative Care (NPPC) in India in 2012 and the amendment in India’s infamous Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act have overcome many of the legal barriers to opioid access. Steps like central and states level palliative care policies, inclusion of palliative care in the undergraduate medical course and above all education of professionals together with public awareness will help improve access to palliative care by a majority in India.

13.    What do you understand by “internal brain drain”? Discuss the implications of economic reforms / globalization over internal brain drain in India.

Answer-1

Internal brain drain is movement of human talent / capital from one sector to another like from manufacturing to service sector; from state to another state for better education and opportunities etc. in the post-globalisation era, the lure for higher salary and perks offered by multinational centres in India, which are creations of globalisation, has attracted young technocrats leaving Indian manufacturing sectors in lurch. It hampers growth of manufacturing sectors in India and result in shortage of talents in various indigenous sectors. The capital goods industry, for instance, has been facing attrition rate over 30 percent during recent times. The manufacturing bigwigs like Larsen and Toubro is facing horrible shortage in human capital. Most of the manufacturing sectors in India are running short of required skilled human resources due to internal human capital flight.

Globalisation has opened up floodgates for multinational companies in developing economies like India. Considering the cost of one engineering hour in India is ten times less in their country, the multinational pays double or triple of what Indian companies can afford. As a result the multinational companies hire a considerable segment of best human capital of India having a debilitating impact on Indian economy. It is estimated that for $30 million of engineering services are provided by multinational centres in India, the country is deprived of assets worth over $1 billion.

Answer-2

A study by the United Nations has observed that Internal Migration within India for higher education risks creating a ‘brain drain’ within the country that could perpetuate regional economic imbalances despite rising education levels overall.
With uneven distribution of educational facilities, some states act as feeder states while others gain at their expense.

States which are ignoring higher education are not only losing skilled labour but also the opportunity to create employment.

The implications of globalization or economic reforms over the internal brain in India are far ranging. Firstly, there is the brain drain at national level from worst of states to better of states due to the opportunities offered by the developed states. Secondly, globalisation contributes significantly to the brain drain of India at global level. Better education, standard of living, income and health facilities offer opportunities for individuals to migrate at global level. Also economic reforms and globalisation have an impact to major cities like Mumbai, Delhi, etc. first. This attracts youth to cities leaving their natives leading to the issue of brain drain at national level.

In order to tackle this alarming issue, government must reach out to the less developed regions by making an effort to provide similar facilities of life which are available in better off regions.

14.    “Religion and globalisation have always shared a relation of struggle and conflict.” Discuss.

Answer-1

Religion is community specific whereas globalisation considers the whole world a community. The former holds cardinal importance for its followers, the latter is a specially an economic arrangement sans border. The former is dominated by world’s leading religions like Christianity, Islam and Hinduism; the latter is defined and governed by the rich and the developed. All the world religions espouse both a worldview and a code of morality. All religions embody dissimilarities in perceptions and practices that decrease the possibility of finding common ground for cooperation and cohabitation; on the other hand globalisation treat the world as a village from economic point of view. Although globalisation contribute to the exchange of ideas and thoughts across the globe, communities averse to compromise their religious and cultural interests for the sake of greater economic and multilateral relations which is often dictated by globalisation.
Critics reveal that the present-day form of globalization, controlled by economic power, clearly promotes the hegemony of Western culture and corporations; puts jobs and communities at risk in the rich countries and exploits cheap labour in the poorer countries; increases threats to the environment; and undermines the foundations of democracy and social stability by subjecting national political institutions to forces of economic change beyond their control. Global media have helped religions travel across their traditional boundaries to establish their much-coveted global identity. It challenges globalisation’s hybridising effect.

Answer-2

Globalisation is not only the expansion of goods and services. It extends to expansion of beliefs, faiths and practices also. Globalization leads to flattening of cultural differences, erodes local customs and beliefs, and spreads a secular, capitalist way of life that does not match at all with religions of all sorts.

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions with overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests interact with one another.

On the other hand, since globalization is considered as the first truly world revolution, globalization disrupts traditional communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings mental stress. Individuals feel these less desirable consequences of globalization. With religion’s power to convey a picture of security, stability and simple answers through stories and beliefs, individuals turn to religion. In giving individuals a sense of belonging, religious groups help them to find themselves in modern times. In both of these views, the relationship between religion and globalization is antagonistic—one of struggle and conflict.

15.    What do you understand by “salt flats”? While giving examples of some Salt flats around the world, discuss factors behind their formation.

Answer-1

Salt flats, also called salt pans, are large and flat areas of land that were once lake beds. Salt flats are covered with salt and other minerals and they oftentimes look white because of the salt presence.

These areas of land generally form in deserts and other arid places where large bodies of water have dried up over thousands of years and the salt and other minerals are the remnants.

Some of the classic examples of salt flats Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, the Bonneville Salt Flats in the state of Utah and also the Kutch white desert could be considered a salt flat.

The three basic things that are needed to form salt flats are-

• These are a source of salts.
• An enclosed drainage basin so the salts do not wash out.
• An arid climate where evaporation is greater than precipitation so the salts can get left behind when the water dries up.

Answer-2

Salt flats are typical characteristic of a desert region. They are formed as a result of drying up of large water body like lake over thousands of years leaving salt and other minerals as remnants. A large source of salts, an enclosed drainage basin and an arid climate for rapid evaporation are essential geographical conditions for the formation of salt flats or salt pans. There are salt flats found around the world but some of the largest examples include the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, the Bonneville Salt Flats and those found in California’s Death Valley National Park and Rann of Kutch in India.

An arid climate is vital component of a salt flat formation where large rivers with their meandering courses and networks are rare because of lack of water sources. Enclosed drainage basin never let the water out of it thereby making suitable for the formation of salt flats. Usually, all water bodies hold a variety of liquefied minerals and as lakes dry up through thousands of years of evaporation the minerals become solids and are in rest where the lakes once were. The salt flats have very hot weather in day time and very cold during night due escape of heat.

16.   Can mountains form away from plate boundaries? Discuss with suitable explanation and examples.

On the basis of their dominant characteristics, mountains can be classified as: Folded mountains, Volcanic mountains, fault-block mountains and upwarped (dome) mountains.  The folded mountains are generally formed at plate boundaries. But the other three types of mountains can be formed away from plate boundaries also. For example, the volcanic mountains are formed from extrusion of lava and pyroclastic material. Examples of such mountains are Cotapaxi, Kilimanjaro.

However, plate movement is necessary for formation of mountains. Some of the Fault-block Mountains are associated with rift valleys such as those in East Africa, while others appear to be formed by vertical uplifting. Siena-Nevada of California is a typical example of fault-block mountains.

Upwarped (Domed) Mountains are formed by magmatic intrusions and upwarping of the crystal surface. The lava domes, batholithic domes, laccolithic domes, salt domes, etc., are the examples of Dome Mountains. Adirondack mountains of New York may be cited as an example of upwarped (domes) mountains.

17.    Why do the major pressure belts and winds shift pole wards during summer season? Explain.

The distribution of atmospheric pressure across the latitudes is termed as the global horizontal distribution of pressure. On the basis of their zonal position, they are known as pressure belts. The earth is divided into seven major pressure belts such as Equatorial Low, two Subtropical Highs, the two Sub-polar Lows, the two polar highs.  On account of inclination of the spherical earth differential heating and cooling is experienced across the continents and oceans. During summer season the sun is overhead on the Tropic Of Cancer on June 21 and intense heat of the sun throughout the pressure belts shift northward. Similar situation is experienced in Southern Hemisphere in summer season. The subtropical ridge moves pole ward during the summer, reaching its most northern latitude in early fall, before moving equator ward during the cold season. The positions of the world’s continents and major oceans also significantly influence the major pressure belts that develop from the general circulation of the atmosphere. In summer the development of continental low pressure significantly influences the pattern of monsoons that affect the weather of India and southern Asia that would otherwise be much weaker if the subtropical high pressure remained persistent.

18.   Why is that most of the deserts are found in subtropical region? Explain.

Hot deserts are formed not due to heat but because of one or more of the following interlinked causes:

• The formation of the subtropical high-pressure cell.
• The rain shadow effect in the belt of easterly trade winds.
• The effect of the cold currents off the west coast of the continents at these latitudes.
• The depositing sands of a desert along its border into the fertile land.

Further, heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the monsoon trough or ITCZ. The upper-level divergence over the near-equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft. As the air moves towards the mid-latitudes, it cools and sinks, which leads to subsidence near the 30^thparallel of both hemispheres. This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge. Many of the world’s deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas, located within the subtropics. This regime is known as an arid subtropical climate, which is generally located in areas adjacent to powerful cold ocean currents. Examples of this climate, the coastal areas of southern Africa (Namibia, South Africa), south of the Canary Islands and the coasts of Peru and Chile.

19.   Discuss the geographical and historical bases of tribal population concentration in India.

Answer-1

According the 2011 census, the tribal population comprise about 8.6 percent of India’s population. Spatial distribution of tribal population in India is characterised by a striking tendency of clustering and concentrating in pockets, which have suffered from isolation and are situated in areas where environmental setting characterised by non-agricultural practices. Out of 571 scheduled tribes in India, 108 tribes are found alone in Northeast region, 28 in northwest region, 176 in Central India, 95 in Western India, 143 in South and 12 in different islands.

The tribals are the ancient inhabitants of India who were pushed to isolated regions by the invading groups of relatively more advanced race and culture. Most of the tribal population in India live in hilly and forested tracts and other remote areas of the country. Rugged terrains, rigorous environment, remoteness from the mainstream society are constraints that hinder required development of tribal population in India and they still practise their own traditional mode of living. Although government policies and international effort have brought some changes in the lifestyles of tribal population, such changes are confined to a few pockets leaving the majority of tribal population untouched. The traditional mindset of tribal fraternity in India is persistent till date and their resistance to outside influence is held accountable for such status quo.

20.  Analyze the role of jet stream in Indian Monsoon.

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow air currents located near the Tropopause. The major jet streams on Earth are westerly winds (flowing west to east). The Jet streams are upper level, irregular, concentrated, meandering bands of westerly winds that travel at speeds of 300 to 400 kmph and come to India from the Mediterranean side in winter. This jet stream is bifurcated due to the physical obstruction of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau. One branch is located to the south of the Himalayas, while the second branch is positioned to the north of the Tibetan Plateau. The  southern branch  blows  eastwards  south  of the  Himalayan  ranges  along  25°  N  latitude (Rajasthan., MP, Chhattisgarh etc.) .  These winds tend to descend over the north-western parts of India, resulting into the development of atmospheric stability and dry conditions.  It  is  believed  that  this  branch  of  jet  stream  exercises  a  significant  influence  on  the  winter weather conditions in India. This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances from the Mediterranean region into Indian sub-continent. Winter rain and hail storms in north western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are caused by these disturbances. These are generally followed by cold waves in whole of northern plains.