Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Southern Asia occupying a pivotal geographic position at the intersection of Central and South Asia. Its rugged terrain, composed largely of mountain ranges, is interspersed with fertile valleys and northern plains that sustain clustered settlements and agricultural livelihoods. The nation’s contemporary political, economic, and social dynamics are shaped by a complex history of imperial rivalry, prolonged conflict, state-building efforts, and governance challenges. Despite facing considerable development obstacles, Afghanistan possesses substantial natural resource potential and a rich cultural heritage.

Geography and Environment

Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north, and China in the far north-east. Its coordinates (33° N, 65° E) define a total land area of 652,230 sq km, making it slightly smaller than the US state of Texas. The Hindu Kush mountain range dominates the landscape, stretching north-east to south-west, and serves as a climatic and geographic divide between northern and southern regions. The country’s highest point, Noshak, reaches 7,492 metres within the Wakhan Corridor, whereas the lowest point, the Amu Darya River, lies at 258 metres above sea level.
The terrain contributes to Afghanistan’s mean elevation of approximately 1,884 metres, shaping its continental climate characterised by hot, dry summers and cold winters. Environmental hazards include frequent earthquakes in the Hindu Kush, floods, and prolonged droughts. Long-term challenges encompass deforestation, desertification, soil degradation, and limited access to freshwater resources. Major river systems, such as the Amu Darya and Helmand, sustain irrigation networks crucial for agriculture.
Natural resources are abundant and diverse, including natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, and precious and semiprecious stones. Agricultural land covers about 58.7% of the national territory, with 12% arable and 46.4% permanent pasture; forests occupy around 1.9%. Approximately 24,930 sq km of land is irrigated, underpinning the agrarian economy.

Historical Background and Political Context

The foundation of the modern Afghan state dates to 1747, when Ahmad Shah Durrani united various Pashtun tribes. Throughout the 19th century, Afghanistan functioned as a buffer state between the British and Russian Empires during the “Great Game” period. The country achieved full sovereignty in 1919 following the Third Anglo-Afghan War, under King Amanullah Khan, who initiated constitutional and modernising reforms.
The 1973 coup d’état ended the monarchy, installing a republic that was soon destabilised by factionalism. The 1978 communist revolution triggered the Soviet invasion of 1979, leading to a decade of resistance by mujahideen fighters, backed by international actors, until the Soviet withdrawal in 1989. The ensuing civil wars culminated in Taliban control of Kabul in 1996, marked by the imposition of strict Islamic law.
Following the 11 September 2001 attacks, a US-led coalition overthrew the Taliban, leading to the establishment of a UN-sponsored transitional government and adoption of a new constitution in 2004. Hamid Karzai became the first democratically elected president, succeeded by Ashraf Ghani in 2014. The US–Taliban agreement of February 2020 set the stage for the withdrawal of foreign troops. On 15 August 2021, the Taliban regained control, establishing an interim Islamic Emirate led by Haybatullah Akhundzada.
Since 2021, the Taliban administration has imposed strict interpretations of Islamic (Hanafi) law, restricting women’s education, employment, and mobility. The 2004 constitution remains suspended, and no country has formally recognised the Taliban as the legitimate government.

Administrative Structure and Law

Afghanistan comprises 34 provinces, each governed from provincial capitals under central authority based in Kabul (34° 31′ N, 69° 11′ E). Under the pre-2021 republican structure, the country functioned as a presidential republic with a bicameral legislature—the Wolesi Jirga (House of the People) and Meshrano Jirga (House of Elders). These institutions were dissolved after the Taliban takeover.
Currently, governance operates under a theocratic system, with a Supreme Court and provincial religious courts implementing decrees based on Sharia principles. Political parties and organised opposition are banned. Citizenship is determined by descent, not birthplace, and dual nationality is not officially recognised.

Population and Society

Afghanistan’s population was estimated at 40.1 million in 2024, with a median age of about 20 years, reflecting high fertility rates (TFR ~4.4) and rapid demographic growth. Around 27% of the population is urban, with Kabul serving as the largest city, housing approximately 4.6 million residents. Settlement patterns follow river valleys and foothills, particularly around the Hindu Kush.
The country is predominantly Muslim, mainly Sunni (Hanafi), with a Shia minority. Official languages are Dari (Afghan Persian) and Pashto, while regional languages include Uzbeki, Turkmani, Pashaie, Nuristani, Balochi, and Pamiri. Literacy remains low, around 37%, with substantial gender inequality in education.
Public health services are limited, with approximately 0.32 physicians and 0.4 hospital beds per 1,000 people. Maternal and infant mortality rates remain high, though access to clean water has improved to 99% in urban and 76% in rural areas. Life expectancy averages in the mid-50s.

Economy and Production

Afghanistan’s economy is low-income and import-dependent, suffering significant contraction after 2021 due to sanctions and the cessation of most international aid. By 2023, GDP was estimated at US$82 billion (PPP, 2021 dollars), with a per capita income of around US$2,000. Economic activity is divided among agriculture (35%), services (46%), and industry (13%).
Agriculture remains the backbone of livelihoods, producing wheat, grapes, melons, rice, potatoes, onions, vegetables, and milk. Industrial activity includes brickmaking, textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertiliser, apparel, food processing, beverages, and carpets. The energy and mining sectors—particularly coal and copper—are underdeveloped but potentially lucrative.
The unemployment rate is around 13–14%, with female and youth unemployment particularly acute. The trade deficit is large, as exports (such as coal, dried fruits, and nuts) fall far short of imports (including food, oil, and machinery). Pakistan and India are key export markets, while the UAE, Pakistan, China, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan are major import sources.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Communications

Electricity access covers over 85% of households, but most energy is imported from neighbouring states. Installed capacity stands at approximately 627 MW, dominated by hydropower (77%), with smaller solar and thermal inputs. Energy losses in transmission remain significant.
Telecommunications infrastructure supports about 23 million mobile subscriptions, while internet penetration remains under 20%, primarily via mobile devices. Broadcast media operate under strict censorship, with limited freedom for independent outlets.
Afghanistan possesses around 68 airports, a small number with paved runways, and numerous heliports. Mountainous topography and security conditions hinder the development of an integrated transport network, though regional corridors facilitate trade links to Central Asia and Pakistan’s seaports.

Governance, Security, and Law Enforcement

The Taliban Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior oversee military and police functions. Security forces rely heavily on captured equipment from the pre-2021 Afghan National Army and older Soviet-era systems. Women are largely excluded from service. The main security priorities include border protection, counter-insurgency operations, and combating ISIS-K activity.
Afghanistan remains a volatile security environment, hosting multiple militant groups including ISIS-K and networks associated with al-Qa‘ida. Persistent cross-border tensions with Pakistan, frequent insurgent attacks, and large populations of internally displaced persons (estimated in the millions) underscore continuing instability.

International Relations and National Identity

Afghanistan remains a member of several international organisations, although Taliban envoys are often not recognised by global bodies. Historically, the country marks its independence on 19 August 1919, though the Taliban commemorate 15 August as the date of their victory. The national colours—black, red, and green—symbolise sovereignty, bloodshed for independence, and hope for the future.
Cultural landmarks include the Minaret of Jam and the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the latter destroyed in 2001, representing both Afghanistan’s rich heritage and turbulent history.
Afghanistan’s present-day outlook reflects a juxtaposition of youthful demographics, resource potential, and strategic geography against enduring challenges of governance, gender inequality, economic hardship, and international isolation. Its future stability and development will depend largely on policy directions concerning education, women’s rights, resource management, and regional cooperation.