Abul Fazal

Abul Fazl ibn Mubarak (1551–1602) was a distinguished scholar, historian, philosopher, and courtier in the Mughal Empire, best known as one of the Navaratnas (Nine Gems) in the court of Emperor Akbar the Great. As Akbar’s trusted advisor and chief chronicler, Abul Fazl played a pivotal role in shaping Mughal administrative thought, religious policy, and historiography. His monumental works, the Ain-i-Akbari and the Akbarnama, remain invaluable sources for understanding the political, cultural, and intellectual life of Mughal India.

Early Life and Education

Abul Fazl was born in Agra in January 1551 into a distinguished scholarly family. His father, Shaikh Mubarak Nagori, was a noted theologian and teacher who had migrated from Nagaur in Rajasthan to Agra. The family was well-versed in Islamic theology, philosophy, and Persian literature, and maintained intellectual connections with leading scholars of the time.
Abul Fazl and his elder brother, Faizi, received rigorous education in Arabic, Persian, philosophy, logic, mathematics, and theology. From a young age, Abul Fazl exhibited extraordinary intellectual ability and curiosity. However, his critical approach to orthodox religious teachings led him to question dogmatic interpretations of Islam, foreshadowing his later support for Emperor Akbar’s liberal and syncretic ideas.

Association with Emperor Akbar

Abul Fazl joined the Mughal court around 1574, introduced by his brother Faizi, who was already serving Akbar as the royal poet and scholar. His intellectual depth, eloquence, and administrative acumen quickly gained Akbar’s admiration. Abul Fazl became one of the emperor’s closest confidants, serving as court historian, chief secretary, and policy advisor.
He was instrumental in articulating and documenting Akbar’s vision of governance based on sulh-i-kul (universal peace)—a principle advocating religious tolerance, rational statecraft, and ethical governance. Through his writings, Abul Fazl expressed Akbar’s ideals of justice, rationalism, and pluralism, distinguishing the Mughal state as one of the most enlightened empires of the early modern world.

Political and Administrative Contributions

Abul Fazl was not merely a historian but also a key architect of Akbar’s administrative and ideological framework. His understanding of governance combined Islamic, Persian, and Indian traditions to craft a uniquely Mughal model of rule.
He played an important role in:

• Drafting official documents and royal decrees, ensuring they reflected Akbar’s inclusive policies.
• Formulating the emperor’s religious and philosophical debates in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars of different faiths—Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian, and Zoroastrian—were invited to discuss theological ideas.
• Developing the concept of the Divine Faith (Din-i-Ilahi), an ethical system rather than a religion, intended to unite followers of different creeds under principles of reason, morality, and universal brotherhood.
• Contributing to the rationalisation of land revenue assessment and administrative divisions across the empire, as later codified in his Ain-i-Akbari.

His political philosophy emphasised rational governance, religious harmony, and the moral responsibility of rulers, principles that left a lasting impact on Mughal statecraft.

Major Works

Abul Fazl’s literary and historical works are among the most important in Persian historiography and remain primary sources for understanding Akbar’s reign.
1. Akbarnama (Book of Akbar)The Akbarnama, composed in three volumes, is Abul Fazl’s magnum opus documenting the life and reign of Emperor Akbar. Written in elegant Persian prose, it combines history, biography, and political philosophy.

• Volume I traces the history of the Mughal dynasty from Babur’s rise to Akbar’s accession.
• Volume II provides a detailed account of Akbar’s political, military, and administrative achievements.
• Volume III, known as the Ain-i-Akbari, serves as a comprehensive administrative manual of the empire.

The Akbarnama goes beyond a mere chronicle—it is a sophisticated reflection of the emperor’s ideals, the functioning of the court, and the socio-political structure of 16th-century India.
2. Ain-i-Akbari (Institutes of Akbar)The Ain-i-Akbari is both an administrative document and a cultural encyclopaedia. It provides meticulous details about Akbar’s government, revenue system, army, geography, population, and the empire’s economy.
The work is divided into five books (ains):

• The first three focus on imperial administration, revenue, and military organisation.
• The fourth describes the social and cultural life of the empire, including religion, festivals, arts, and literature.
• The fifth deals with Akbar’s household, palace regulations, and personal interests.

The Ain-i-Akbari stands out for its rational and empirical approach to governance, reflecting Abul Fazl’s commitment to scientific documentation and enlightened administration. It is one of the earliest examples of systematic data collection in South Asian history.

Literary Style and Intellectual Outlook

Abul Fazl’s writing is characterised by sophisticated Persian prose, intricate metaphors, and philosophical depth. His works reveal a remarkable blend of rationalism, empiricism, and spiritual humanism. He rejected narrow religious orthodoxy, favouring reason, ethics, and universal values.
A rationalist and humanist, he advocated:

• The idea of the emperor as God’s vicegerent on earth, responsible for maintaining justice and harmony.
• A state guided by reason rather than divine sanction or religious orthodoxy.
• The equality of all religions and the necessity of tolerance (tasamuh).

His intellectual orientation placed him at odds with orthodox scholars such as Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, who viewed his liberalism as heretical. Yet, Abul Fazl’s philosophical contributions laid the groundwork for a more secular and inclusive concept of governance in India.

Relationship with Akbar and Court Politics

Abul Fazl’s close relationship with Akbar provoked jealousy and hostility among other courtiers, notably Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir) and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. His influence over Akbar’s decisions and his opposition to Salim’s premature ambitions made him a target of political intrigue.
Abul Fazl was deeply loyal to Akbar and resisted any attempts to undermine imperial authority. His unwavering integrity, combined with his intellectual dominance, often made him a contentious figure at court, especially among conservative and power-seeking nobles.

Death

Abul Fazl’s illustrious career came to a tragic end in 1602. While travelling from the Deccan to Agra, he was ambushed and killed near Sarai Vir (in modern-day Madhya Pradesh) by forces loyal to Prince Salim, who saw him as a political obstacle. The assassination was allegedly orchestrated by Bir Singh Deo Bundela, acting under Salim’s orders.
Akbar was deeply grieved by the loss of his most trusted counsellor and scholar, regarding his death as an irreparable blow to the empire’s intellectual and moral foundation.

Legacy and Historical Significance

Abul Fazl remains one of the most important intellectuals of the Mughal period. His historical and philosophical works continue to serve as vital sources for historians, providing insight into:

• Mughal administration, economy, and society.
• Akbar’s religious and political reforms.
• The evolution of Indo-Persian historiography.

His advocacy of tolerance, rational inquiry, and ethical governance resonates with modern principles of secularism and multiculturalism. The Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama stand not only as chronicles of imperial grandeur but also as testaments to humanist thought in pre-modern India.

Abul Fazl and Modern Scholarship

Modern historians regard Abul Fazl as both a court historian and a political philosopher. His rational and empirical approach to recording data reflects early modern tendencies towards statecraft and scientific thinking. His works have been translated and studied extensively for their literary excellence and socio-political insight.
While some critics argue that his writings exhibit bias in favour of Akbar, his intellectual independence, analytical depth, and documentation of social diversity make his work invaluable to understanding Mughal governance and cultural pluralism.