Chhappania Akal (1899–1900)

The Chhappania Akal, also known as the Famine of 1899–1900, was one of the most severe famines in the history of colonial India, particularly devastating the regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Central India. The term “Chhappania Akal” literally means “the famine of the year ’56” (referring to the year 1956 in the Vikram Samvat calendar, which corresponds to 1899–1900 CE). This catastrophic event led to widespread hunger, disease, depopulation, and socio-economic distress, leaving a lasting imprint on the collective memory of western India.

Historical Context

During the late 19th century, India experienced a series of famines under British colonial rule, largely due to the failure of monsoons compounded by exploitative economic policies. The Chhappania Akal occurred after the famines of 1876–78 and 1896–97, at a time when agrarian communities were already weakened by recurring crop failures and colonial taxation.
The famine was primarily caused by the failure of the monsoon rains of 1899, which devastated crops in the semi-arid tracts of western India. Its impact was most severe in:

• Rajasthan (then Rajputana) — especially in Marwar (Jodhpur), Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jaipur, and Ajmer-Merwara.
• Gujarat — notably in the Kutch and Kathiawar regions.
• Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Punjab.

The disaster was one of the worst in a succession of famines that plagued British India between 1870 and 1900.

Causes of the Famine

The Chhappania Akal resulted from a combination of natural and man-made factors:

1. Monsoon Failure:
   • The primary cause was the complete failure of the southwest monsoon in 1899.
   • Rainfall was either highly deficient or non-existent, leading to a total failure of kharif crops (such as millets and pulses) and severe drought conditions.
2. Colonial Agrarian Policies:
   • British revenue demands remained inflexible despite crop failures.
   • Land taxes were collected in cash, forcing peasants to sell grain reserves and livestock to pay dues, further aggravating distress.
3. Deforestation and Ecological Stress:
   • Expansion of railways and commercial cropping (cotton, indigo) had disrupted traditional water conservation systems and reduced ecological resilience.
4. Market Distortions:
   • The introduction of railways and trade networks facilitated export of food grains from famine-affected areas to urban or foreign markets.
   • Local prices soared beyond the reach of ordinary villagers.
5. Livestock Epidemics:
   • Concurrent outbreaks of rinderpest (cattle plague) decimated herds, depriving peasants of draught animals essential for ploughing and transportation.
6. Public Health Crises:
   • Malnutrition, scarcity of clean water, and unhygienic conditions led to epidemics of cholera, malaria, and dysentery, worsening mortality rates.

Extent and Impact

The Chhappania Akal affected millions across western India and caused immense human and animal suffering.

• Geographical Spread: The famine stretched across the arid and semi-arid zones of Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, affecting nearly 476,000 square kilometres of land.
• Population Impact: Mortality estimates vary, but official records suggest 1.25 to 1.5 million people perished, while many more migrated in search of food and work. Rural depopulation was widespread, and entire villages were deserted.
• Livestock Loss: Rajasthan alone lost millions of cattle, camels, and goats, severely crippling agricultural recovery and transportation.
• Social Consequences: The famine triggered mass migration toward cities like Ahmedabad, Jaipur, and Bombay (Mumbai). Social structures collapsed under extreme distress—many families sold land, jewellery, or even children to survive.
• Cultural Memory: Folk songs, oral traditions, and local histories across Rajasthan and Gujarat still recall the Chhappania Akal as a time of immense suffering and human endurance.

British Relief Measures

The colonial administration undertook relief efforts, but these were inadequate and poorly managed, reflecting the limited state intervention typical of British famine policy.

1. Relief Works:
   • Labour-intensive public works were introduced (e.g., construction of roads and canals), offering meagre wages in exchange for hard labour.
   • The famine codes laid down in the Famine Commission Report of 1880 were partially applied, but implementation varied by region.
2. Grain Distribution and Camps:
   • Grain depots and relief camps were established, but supplies were inconsistent and often delayed.
   • Bureaucratic hurdles and corruption reduced their effectiveness.
3. Charitable and Local Responses:
   • Indian princes, landlords, and merchants played a crucial role in relief through annakshetras (community kitchens), gaushalas (cattle shelters), and local charities.
   • The princely state of Jodhpur, under Maharaja Sardar Singh, and Bikaner, under Maharaja Ganga Singh, undertook notable famine relief efforts.

Economic and Ecological Consequences

1. Agrarian Decline:
   • The famine disrupted agricultural cycles for several years. Many peasants, having lost cattle and seed stocks, could not resume cultivation even after rains returned.
2. Rural Debt:
   • Peasants borrowed heavily from moneylenders during the famine, leading to increased indebtedness and land alienation.
3. Environmental Degradation:
   • Deforestation and loss of vegetation accelerated soil erosion, aggravating long-term desertification in western Rajasthan.
4. Institutional Changes:
   • The famine led to renewed discussion on irrigation development, water conservation, and the establishment of famine commissions to improve future response mechanisms.

Cultural and Historical Legacy

The Chhappania Akal left a profound imprint on local folklore and historical consciousness. In Rajasthani oral traditions, the famine is remembered through songs, proverbs, and folk tales symbolising endurance and moral lessons.

• It is referred to in proverbs such as “Chhappania jyon akal na hoyi” (No famine was as devastating as that of ’56).
• Folk songs commemorate communal solidarity and the kindness of those who helped the starving.
• The event also inspired early nationalist criticism of British economic policies, which many Indian leaders blamed for worsening rural distress.

Comparison with Other Famines

The Chhappania Akal was part of a series of late 19th-century famines that struck India under colonial rule. It followed the Indian Famine of 1896–97 and was succeeded by minor scarcities in 1905 and 1918.
Compared with earlier famines, the Chhappania Akal was unique in its geographic concentration in western India and its combination of drought, livestock loss, and disease—making recovery particularly slow and difficult.

Measures and Lessons Learned

Post-famine evaluations emphasised the need for:

• Improved Irrigation Infrastructure: Expansion of canals and wells to reduce dependence on monsoons.
• Permanent Relief Mechanisms: Institutionalisation of famine relief codes and contingency plans.
• Agricultural Diversification: Introduction of drought-resistant crops and livestock management programmes.
• Community-Based Water Conservation: Revival of traditional systems such as tankas, baoris, and johads in Rajasthan.