Zimbabwe

The Republic of Zimbabwe, located in southern Africa, is a landlocked nation rich in minerals, fertile land, and cultural heritage. Despite its abundant natural wealth and advanced human capital, Zimbabwe’s post-independence history has been marred by economic collapse, political repression, and governance challenges. Once heralded as the “breadbasket of Africa,” it continues to navigate the legacies of colonial dispossession, liberation struggle, and authoritarian rule in pursuit of stability and inclusive growth.

Historical Background and Political Evolution

The earliest known inhabitants were San hunter-gatherers, who were later displaced or assimilated by Bantu-speaking migrants around A.D. 500. Between the 9th and 15th centuries, Shona-speaking societies built complex agrarian and trading states linked to Indian Ocean trade networks via Arab merchants.
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (11th century) and its successor, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (c. 1220–1450), became prosperous centres of gold and ivory trade, renowned for their stone-built architecture, symbolised by the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. Successor states such as the Mutapa Empire (c. 1450–1760) and the Rozwi Empire extended Shona political influence until their decline under pressure from the Ndebele migrations during the 19th-century Mfecane.
British imperial expansion began in the 1880s when Cecil Rhodes’s British South Africa Company (BSAC) obtained dubious mining concessions from Ndebele King Lobengula, leading to the Matabeleland and Mashonaland conquests (1893–1894). In 1923, the territory became the self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia, dominated by a white settler elite. The Land Apportionment Act (1930) institutionalised racial segregation, restricting African land ownership to infertile “native reserves.”
Following the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in 1965, Prime Minister Ian Smith’s white-minority government faced international sanctions and a guerrilla war waged by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). The conflict ended with the Lancaster House Agreement (1979) and the proclamation of independence on 18 April 1980.
Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF) became the first Prime Minister and later President. His government expanded education and healthcare but committed grave human rights abuses, including the Gukurahundi massacres (1983–1987), during which over 20,000 Ndebele civilians were killed. A new constitution in 1987 created an executive presidency, solidifying Mugabe’s control.
The fast-track land reform programme (2000–2005), intended to correct colonial-era land inequalities, degenerated into violent seizures and economic collapse. Hyperinflation peaked in 2008, reaching over 230 million percent, forcing the abandonment of the Zimbabwean dollar. Mugabe remained in power until 2017, when the military staged a coup that installed Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa as president. Although Mnangagwa promised reform, elections in 2018 and 2023 were marred by irregularities and repression, maintaining ZANU-PF’s dominance.

Geography and Environment

Zimbabwe covers 390,757 sq km, bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, and Zambia. The Zambezi River defines much of the northern border, while the Limpopo River runs along the south. Lake Kariba, one of the world’s largest man-made reservoirs, supports hydroelectric power and fishing.
The country’s terrain consists mainly of high plateaus (1,200–1,600 m), with the Highveld forming its fertile agricultural heartland. The Eastern Highlands, along the Mozambique border, contain Mount Inyangani (2,592 m), the nation’s highest point.
The climate is tropical, tempered by altitude, with a rainy season from November to March and a dry winter from May to September. Droughts and floods occur cyclically, often associated with El Niño events.
Natural resources:

• Minerals: gold, platinum, diamonds, coal, lithium, chromium, nickel, iron ore
• Land use: 42% agricultural, 44.9% forested
• Major environmental issues: deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution from mining activities

Zimbabwe is party to international environmental accords, including the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Population and Society

Population (2024): 17.15 million

• Median age: 21.2 years
• Population growth rate: 1.91%
• Urban population: ~38%
• Main cities: Harare (capital, 1.6 million), Bulawayo, Mutare, and Gweru

Ethnically, Shona constitute ~80%, Ndebele ~15%, and smaller groups (Tonga, Venda, Kalanga) make up the remainder. There are 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele most widely used.
Religion: Predominantly Christian (84%), especially Apostolic, Pentecostal, and Protestant denominations, often blended with traditional spiritual practices.
Social indicators (2024):

• Life expectancy: 67.2 years
• Fertility rate: 3.7 children per woman
• Literacy: 93.2%
• Maternal mortality: 358 per 100,000 births
• Infant mortality: 33.4 per 1,000 live births
• Access to safe water: 62.3%
• Access to sanitation: 65.6%
• Physician density: 0.14 per 1,000 people

HIV/AIDS prevalence remains significant (11.9% of adults), though national prevention campaigns have reduced new infections dramatically since the 2000s.

Political System and Governance

Zimbabwe is a presidential republic under the 2013 Constitution, combining elements of English common law, Roman-Dutch civil law, and customary law.

• President: Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa (since November 2017)
• Vice President: Constantino Chiwenga
• Legislature: Bicameral Parliament
  • National Assembly: 280 seats
  • Senate: 80 seats

In the 2023 elections, ZANU-PF won 175 seats in the National Assembly, while the Citizens Coalition for Change (CCC), led by Nelson Chamisa, secured 104. Women occupy about 30% of parliamentary seats, supported by constitutional quotas.
The judiciary, comprising the Constitutional Court and Supreme Court, formally guarantees independence but remains subject to executive pressure. Political opposition and media freedom face systematic restrictions, while security agencies play a decisive political role.

Economy and Development

GDP (2024): US$44.2 billion

• GDP growth: 2.0%
• GDP per capita: US$2,580 (PPP)
• Inflation: ~55% (post-currency reform)
• Public debt: 78% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 5.4%
• Industry & mining: 31.8%
• Services: 55.8%

Major exports: gold, platinum, nickel, tobacco, diamonds, lithiumMain partners: UAE (45%), China (18%), South Africa (15%)
After years of hyperinflation, Zimbabwe introduced a gold-backed currency (ZiG) in April 2024 to replace the collapsing Zimbabwean dollar. The economy remains fragile, heavily reliant on mining exports and remittances (9.4% of GDP).
Unemployment officially stands at 8.6%, though informal employment exceeds 75%. Poverty affects 38% of citizens, and income inequality is among the highest in Africa (Gini 50.3).
Energy and infrastructure:

• Electrification rate: 50% (urban 89%, rural 34%)
• Energy mix: 65% hydropower (Kariba Dam), 25% coal, 10% renewables
• Frequent load-shedding disrupts industries and urban services

Carbon emissions reached 12.6 million tonnes (2023), driven by coal power and transport emissions.

Defence, Foreign Policy, and Space Activities

The Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) comprise the National Army and Air Force, totalling roughly 30,000 active personnel. The ZDF maintains strong political influence and has intervened in regional peacekeeping under SADC, including in Mozambique (2021–2024).
Defence spending: 0.4% of GDP (2024)Main arms suppliers: China and Russia
Foreign policy focuses on regional integration through SADC, COMESA, and the African Union (AU). Relations with the U.S. and EU remain strained due to human rights abuses and sanctions, though limited re-engagement has occurred.
Established in 2019, the Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency (ZINGSA) promotes remote sensing, climate monitoring, and satellite collaboration, including with Japan’s BIRDS-5 project.

Culture, Heritage, and National Identity

Zimbabwe’s identity draws deeply from its precolonial kingdoms and liberation struggle. The Great Zimbabwe ruins, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, symbolise national pride and continuity. Other heritage sites include Mana Pools National Park, Matobo Hills, Khami Ruins, and Victoria Falls, shared with Zambia.
The national flag—green, gold, red, black, and white—embodies agriculture, minerals, sacrifice, unity, and peace. The Zimbabwe bird, derived from ancient soapstone carvings, is the central emblem of sovereignty. The national anthem, “Simudzai Mureza WeZimbabwe” (“Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe”), celebrates unity and resilience.
Traditional music, particularly mbira (thumb piano), alongside stone sculpture and literature, continues to define the cultural landscape.