Yemen

Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, occupies a strategic position at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, bordering Saudi Arabia, Oman, and three major bodies of water—the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Arabian Sea. Known for its ancient civilisation, distinctive architecture, and pivotal location controlling the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Yemen has historically served as a crossroads for African and Asian trade. Despite its deep cultural heritage and abundant potential, modern Yemen has endured prolonged instability, conflict, and humanitarian crises since the unification of North and South Yemen in 1990.

Historical Background and Political Evolution

The modern state of Yemen was formed through the merger of two historically and ideologically distinct entities. In the north, the Kingdom of Yemen, later the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR), gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1918. In the south, Aden, a British colony since 1839, evolved into the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) following British withdrawal in 1967 and the adoption of a Marxist system in 1970.
The ideological divide between the YAR and PDRY led to decades of tension and conflict, culminating in the unification of the two states on 22 May 1990, forming the Republic of Yemen. However, internal divisions persisted. A brief civil war in 1994, triggered by southern secessionist attempts, was crushed by northern forces loyal to President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who had ruled since 1978.
From 2004, the Houthi insurgency in the northern province of Sa’dah challenged the central government. Rooted in the Zaydi Shia revivalist movement, the Houthis (Ansarallah) accused the state of marginalisation. Their rebellion escalated into full-scale war by 2014, when they captured the capital, Sana’a, effectively toppling the internationally recognised government.
The Arab Spring (2011) further destabilised Yemen. Mass protests against corruption and authoritarian rule forced Saleh to resign in 2012 under a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) initiative, transferring power to Abd Rabuh Mansur Hadi. A National Dialogue Conference (2013–2014) attempted to design a new constitution but failed to reconcile regional, tribal, and sectarian divisions.
Following the Houthi takeover of Sana’a, Saudi Arabia intervened militarily in March 2015, leading a coalition to restore Hadi’s government. The ensuing war devastated Yemen’s infrastructure and economy, producing one of the world’s gravest humanitarian crises. Saleh’s assassination in 2017, after shifting allegiances, deepened the fragmentation. The Southern Transitional Council (STC) emerged in the south, demanding autonomy and further complicating the conflict landscape.
In 2022, a UN-mediated truce brought temporary relief, and a new Presidential Leadership Council (PLC) under Dr Rashad Muhammad al-Alimi replaced Hadi, marking a shift to collective governance. Despite intermittent clashes, peace negotiations continued into 2025, underscoring Yemen’s fragile yet ongoing transition.

Geography and Natural Environment

Yemen spans 527,968 square kilometres, including the islands of Perim and the Socotra Archipelago. Its geographical coordinates are 15°N, 48°E, and it shares borders with Saudi Arabia (1,307 km) and Oman (294 km), with a 1,906 km coastline.
Topography: The terrain comprises narrow coastal plains, rugged western highlands, and vast interior plateaus descending into the Rub’ al Khali desert. The western mountains are among Arabia’s most fertile regions, supporting terraced agriculture.
Highest point: Jabal an Nabi Shuʿayb (3,666 m)Climate: Predominantly arid; temperate in the highlands and hot, humid along the coast.Natural resources: petroleum, fish, rock salt, marble, and small deposits of gold, copper, and coal.
Only 2.2% of land is arable, and 41.7% serves as pasture. Forests cover less than 1%. Environmental threats include groundwater depletion, desertification, and overgrazing. The country’s control of the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, a global maritime chokepoint, reinforces its geopolitical importance.

Demography and Social Profile

The 2024 population is estimated at 32.1 million, with a median age of 22 years and a growth rate of 1.78%. Urbanisation remains low at 39.8%, concentrated in western highland cities such as Sana’a (3.29 million), Aden (1.08 million), Taiz (941,000), and Ibb (772,000).
Ethnic composition: Predominantly Arab, with Afro-Arab, South Asian, and small European minorities.Languages: Arabic (official), with Socotri and Mahri dialects on eastern islands.Religion: Islam (approximately 65% Sunni – Shafi’i; 35% Shia – mainly Zaydi), with small Christian, Hindu, and Jewish minorities.
Demographic indicators (2023–2024):

• Life expectancy – 68.2 years
• Fertility rate – 2.82 children per woman
• Infant mortality – 44.6 per 1,000 live births
• Maternal mortality – 118 per 100,000 births
• Literacy – 54.1% of women; overall literacy around 70%
• Urbanisation – 39.8%
• Access to clean water – 61.8%; sanitation – 59.9%

Yemen’s population is youthful and predominantly rural, with 34% under age 15. Conflict and economic collapse have displaced approximately 4.8 million people. Child marriage (around 30%), gender inequality, and poor education access remain acute issues.

Political Structure and Governance

Yemen’s governance combines Islamic (Sharia) principles, civil codes, and tribal customary law. The Presidential Leadership Council (PLC), formed in April 2022, serves as the collective executive authority.
Head of State: Presidential Leadership Council (Chair: Dr Rashad Muhammad al-Alimi)Prime Minister: Salim Salih bin Burayk (since May 2025)Legislature: Bicameral

• House of Representatives (301 seats) – last elected in 2003
• Shura Council (111 members) – appointed

Due to war and fragmentation, legislative activity is largely suspended. The judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, operates irregularly across divided territories.
Main political groups:

• General People’s Congress (GPC) – historically dominant, now fragmented
• Islah Party (Yemeni Reform Grouping) – Islamist-conservative
• Southern Transitional Council (STC) – southern secessionist
• Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP) – leftist, former PDRY ruling party

The Houthi administration, controlling Sana’a and northern areas, operates parallel institutions under Ansarallah governance, while the internationally recognised government functions from Aden and Riyadh.

Economy and Infrastructure

Yemen’s economy has collapsed under the weight of conflict, corruption, and resource depletion. GDP (PPP) in 2024 was estimated at $18.7 billion, with GDP per capita below $700. Hyperinflation, unemployment, and currency depreciation have crippled household purchasing power.
Economic indicators (2024):

• Growth: –2.3% (estimated)
• Unemployment: 17.1% (youth 32%)
• Inflation: ~29% (2022)
• Public debt: >80% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture – 28.7%
• Industry – 25.4%
• Services – 41.8%

Agriculture, employing most Yemenis, produces sorghum, coffee, mangoes, and qat (a mild stimulant crop). The oil and gas sector, once central to exports, has declined sharply since 2015. Remittances, representing nearly 20% of GDP, provide a crucial lifeline.
Exports include gold, fish, and scrap metal, totalling under $400 million, while imports exceed $4 billion. Main trading partners are the UAE, India, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Foreign reserves are minimal, and the rial trades near 1,355 per USD (2023).
Infrastructure: Transport and utilities networks are severely damaged. Electricity access reaches 76% nationally (urban 96%, rural 65%), with generation capacity at 1.79 million kW. Solar energy accounts for 17%, reflecting grassroots adaptation to fuel shortages.

Defence, Security, and Conflict Landscape

Yemen’s military landscape is fragmented among rival factions. The Yemeni Armed Forces include the Army, Navy, Air Force, Border Guards, and Strategic Reserve Forces, supported by local militias and tribal units.
Defence expenditure: approximately 4–5% of GDP before the war; currently unquantifiable due to divided administration.
Major non-state actors include:

• Ansarallah (Houthis) – controlling northern and western Yemen
• Southern Transitional Council (STC) – de facto authority in southern areas
• Al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and ISIS-Yemen – operating in eastern provinces

The Saudi-led coalition, with UAE participation, supports anti-Houthi forces through air and ground operations. Iran is accused of supplying weapons and training to the Houthis, deepening regional rivalries.
The 2022 UN truce significantly reduced airstrikes and civilian casualties, though sporadic fighting persists along key frontlines in Marib, Taiz, and Hudaydah.

Society, Heritage, and Culture

Yemen’s cultural identity reflects a unique blend of Arab, Islamic, and ancient South Arabian traditions. Its architecture—characterised by multistorey mud-brick houses in Shibam Hadramawt and the ornate stone buildings of Sana’a—embodies centuries of artistic evolution.
Five UNESCO World Heritage Sites symbolise its historical richness:

• Old City of Sana’a
• Historic Town of Shibam
• Zabid Archaeological Site
• Socotra Archipelago
• Ancient Kingdom of Saba (Marib)

The national flag features horizontal red, white, and black stripes representing struggle, unity, and hope. The national emblem, an eagle clutching a scroll inscribed “Republic of Yemen,” signifies sovereignty. The national anthem, Al-qumhuriyatu l-muttahida, dates from unification in 1990.