Xuanzang

Xuanzang (pronounced Hsüan-tsang; c. 602 – 664 CE) was a renowned Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, translator, and traveller of the Tang dynasty, celebrated for his 17-year pilgrimage to India in search of authentic Buddhist scriptures and knowledge. His extensive travels, rigorous studies, and subsequent translations played a monumental role in shaping East Asian Buddhism, particularly through his transmission of Indian Buddhist philosophy and his establishment of the Faxiang (Consciousness-Only) school in China.

Early Life and Education

Xuanzang was born in Chenhe Village, near Luoyang in present-day Henan Province, China. His family, known for its Confucian scholarship, encouraged his intellectual development from an early age. He entered monastic life as a young novice monk after being inspired by the teachings of the Buddha and the scholarly traditions of Buddhism that flourished during the Sui and Tang dynasties.
He studied the Tripitaka (Three Baskets of Buddhist scriptures) and became proficient in various Buddhist schools of thought prevalent in China at the time, including Hinayana and Mahayana traditions. However, Xuanzang found inconsistencies in the available translations of Buddhist texts, which motivated him to journey to India — the homeland of Buddhism — to obtain accurate scriptures and to deepen his understanding of the original doctrines.

Pilgrimage to India

In 627 CE, Xuanzang set out on his legendary pilgrimage to India, despite official restrictions on foreign travel. His journey took him through the treacherous routes of Central Asia, crossing deserts, mountain ranges, and numerous kingdoms.
Key stages of his route included:

• Gobi Desert and Turpan (China)
• Kucha and Kashgar (Xinjiang region)
• Tashkent and Samarkand (Uzbekistan)
• Bactria and Bamiyan (Afghanistan)
• Khyber Pass into Gandhara (Pakistan)

After nearly three years of travel, Xuanzang finally reached Nalanda University in Bihar, India, one of the greatest centres of Buddhist learning in the world. There he studied under the eminent scholar Silabhadra, who was the head of the institution and a leading teacher of the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school of Mahayana Buddhism.
Xuanzang mastered Sanskrit and studied diverse branches of Buddhist philosophy, logic, and metaphysics, as well as non-Buddhist Indian philosophical systems such as Samkhya and Nyaya. He also visited other key Buddhist sites including Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar, and Nalanda, collecting hundreds of manuscripts and sacred relics.

Return to China

Xuanzang returned to China in 645 CE, after spending approximately 17 years abroad. He brought back an enormous collection of around 657 Buddhist texts, numerous images, relics, and sacred artefacts. His triumphant return was celebrated by Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty, who supported his scholarly mission and granted him official recognition.
He was soon appointed to lead translation work at the Great Wild Goose Pagoda (Dayan Pagoda) in Chang’an (present-day Xi’an). There, he founded a translation bureau where he and his team of scholars produced some of the most accurate and authoritative translations of Buddhist texts ever made in Chinese.

Scholarly Contributions and Translations

Xuanzang’s contributions as a translator and philosopher were immense. He devoted the rest of his life to translating and systematising Buddhist scriptures, focusing particularly on Mahayana and Yogachara philosophy.
Notable translations and works include:

• Yogachara-bhumi Sastra – A major text of the Yogachara school outlining stages of spiritual development.
• Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra – A key scripture of the Mahayana tradition.
• Vijnaptimatratasiddhi Sastra (Cheng Weishi Lun) – Based on the works of Dharmapala and other Indian Yogachara masters; it became the doctrinal foundation for the Faxiang School in China.
• Abhidharmakosa – A systematic exposition of Buddhist metaphysics and psychology.
• Samdhinirmocana Sutra – A Yogachara text explaining the nature of consciousness and perception.

Xuanzang translated more than 70 works comprising over 1,300 volumes, setting new standards for linguistic precision and philosophical depth in translation. His efforts ensured that Chinese Buddhism gained access to the most authentic sources of Indian Buddhist thought.

Philosophical Influence

Xuanzang was instrumental in introducing and consolidating the Yogachara (Consciousness-Only) philosophy in China. This school, based on the works of Asanga, Vasubandhu, and Dharmapala, asserts that all phenomena are manifestations of consciousness and that external objects have no independent existence apart from perception.
In China, Xuanzang’s interpretation of Yogachara led to the establishment of the Faxiang School (meaning “Dharma Characteristics School”), which became a major intellectual movement in Chinese Buddhism. It later spread to Korea and Japan, where it became known as the Beopsang School and Hossō School respectively.
His writings combined philosophical analysis with moral and spiritual insight, harmonising Indian Buddhist metaphysics with Chinese intellectual traditions such as Confucianism and Daoism.

The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions

In addition to his translations, Xuanzang authored a detailed travelogue titled “Da Tang Xiyu Ji” (The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions), which documented his observations of geography, culture, politics, and religion across more than a hundred kingdoms he visited.
This work remains one of the most valuable historical and geographical records of 7th-century Asia. It provides detailed descriptions of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and Buddhist monastic universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila, and is an indispensable source for historians studying ancient trade routes such as the Silk Road.

Legacy and Influence

Xuanzang’s influence extended far beyond his lifetime. His translations and philosophical interpretations reshaped the intellectual landscape of East Asian Buddhism. His work served as a bridge connecting Indian scholastic Buddhism and Chinese spiritual culture, leading to the flourishing of Buddhist thought throughout Asia.
His journey inspired numerous literary and artistic works, the most famous being the classic Chinese novel “Journey to the West” (Xi You Ji), written in the 16th century by Wu Cheng’en. In this semi-fictional tale, Xuanzang (known as Tang Sanzang) is portrayed as a pilgrim monk accompanied by mythical companions including the Monkey King (Sun Wukong).

Comparison with Other Pilgrims

Xuanzang’s journey followed that of earlier Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian (Fa-Hsien) in the 5th century and preceded Yijing (I-Ching) in the 7th century. However, Xuanzang’s work surpassed his predecessors in scope, accuracy, and philosophical depth. His meticulous approach to translation and documentation set new benchmarks in Buddhist scholarship.

Death and Commemoration

Xuanzang passed away in 664 CE in Chang’an. He was honoured by the Tang Emperor for his contributions to Buddhism and scholarship. Numerous temples and monuments were later built in his memory across China and other Asian countries. His relics are believed to be enshrined in several locations, including Nanjing and Xi’an.

Significance

Xuanzang remains one of the greatest scholar-monks in Buddhist history. His life epitomised devotion to truth, learning, and intercultural exchange. Through his pilgrimage, translation work, and philosophical insight, he:

• Preserved authentic Indian Buddhist texts and doctrines.
• Advanced Chinese Buddhist philosophy, particularly the Yogachara school.
• Provided invaluable records of ancient Asian geography and culture.
• Strengthened cultural ties between India and China.