Uzbekistan

The Republic of Uzbekistan (Oʻzbekiston Respublikasi) is a landlocked Central Asian nation strategically situated between Turkmenistan to the south and Kazakhstan to the north. As the geographic and demographic heart of Central Asia, Uzbekistan has historically served as a crossroads of cultures and trade on the ancient Silk Road, linking East and West. Today, it is one of the region’s most dynamic states, balancing economic reform, social modernisation, and regional diplomacy.

Historical background

Uzbekistan’s history is deeply interwoven with the great civilisations of Central Asia. The region was once home to Bactrian and Sogdian cultures, whose cities flourished as trade and intellectual centres along the Silk Road. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Timurid Empire, founded by Amir Timur (Tamerlane), established its capital in Samarkand, transforming it into a hub of Islamic art, architecture, and scholarship that remains central to Uzbek heritage.
In the 19th century, the Russian Empire gradually conquered Central Asia, incorporating the khanates of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand into its expanding dominion. Following the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), widespread local resistance—known as the Basmachi movement—fought against Soviet control but was ultimately defeated. In 1924, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was established within the USSR.
Under Soviet rule, Uzbekistan became a major supplier of cotton (“white gold”), contributing significantly to the Soviet economy. However, large-scale irrigation projects diverted rivers feeding the Aral Sea, causing one of the world’s worst environmental disasters.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan declared independence on 1 September 1991. Islom Karimov, the country’s first president, ruled for 25 years, maintaining stability through authoritarian governance. His death in 2016 marked the beginning of a new era under Shavkat Mirziyoyev, whose leadership has introduced measured reforms in the economy, judiciary, and foreign policy, while improving regional cooperation.

Geography and environment

Uzbekistan covers 447,400 square kilometres, making it one of the world’s largest landlocked countries—and notably, one of only two doubly landlocked states (the other being Liechtenstein). Much of the country’s terrain consists of arid plains and deserts, particularly the Kyzylkum Desert, interspersed with mountain ranges and fertile valleys in the east. The Fergana Valley, shared with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, is the nation’s agricultural and demographic core.
Principal rivers: Amu Darya and Syr Darya—both historically vital to irrigation and the Aral Sea ecosystem.Highest point: Xazrat Sulton Tog‘ (4,643 m).Lowest point: Sariqamish Kuli (-12 m).
Uzbekistan experiences a continental desert climate—hot, dry summers and mild winters—with significant temperature variations. Natural hazards include earthquakes, droughts, and floods. Environmental degradation remains a major challenge: the Aral Sea crisis, soil salination, and chemical pollution continue to affect public health and agriculture.

People and society

With an estimated population of 36.5 million (2024), Uzbekistan is the most populous country in Central Asia. The population is youthful, with a median age of 28.9 years, supporting a growing labour force.
Ethnic composition:

• Uzbeks – 83.8%
• Tajiks – 4.8%
• Kazakhs – 2.5%
• Russians – 2.3%
• Karakalpaks – 2.2%

Languages:

• Uzbek (official)
• Russian widely used in commerce and administration
• Karakalpak co-official in the Republic of Karakalpakstan

Religion:

• Islam (Sunni) – 88%
• Eastern Orthodox Christianity – 9%
• Other faiths – 3%

Education is a key national priority. Uzbekistan maintains a 100% literacy rate, with education spending exceeding 5% of GDP. Women participate actively in public life, holding over 35% of parliamentary seats and a growing presence in business and academia.

Government and politics

Uzbekistan functions as a presidential republic with a centralised executive system. The President serves as head of state and government, overseeing all major policy directions.

• President: Shavkat Mirziyoyev (in office since 2016; re-elected 2021 and 2023 following constitutional reforms).
• Capital: Tashkent (Toshkent).
• Constitutional referendum (2023): extended the presidential term to seven years and reinforced human rights protections.

Legislature:

• Oliy Majlis (Supreme Assembly) — bicameral:
  • Legislative Chamber (150 members)
  • Senate (65 members)

Major political parties:

• Liberal Democratic Party (LDPU) – ruling party
• People’s Democratic Party (PDPU)
• National Revival Democratic Party (Milliy Tiklanish)
• Justice Social Democratic Party (Adolat)
• Ecological Party

While the political system remains tightly controlled, gradual reforms have expanded judicial independence, civic freedoms, and anti-corruption measures. Restrictions on media and opposition persist but have eased compared with the previous era.

Economy

Uzbekistan’s economy, classified as lower-middle income, has experienced steady expansion since independence. GDP (PPP) in 2024 reached approximately $380 billion, growing at 6.5% annually, among the highest in Eurasia.
Sectoral composition (2024):

• Agriculture – 18%
• Industry – 32%
• Services – 45%

Key exports: gold, natural gas, cotton yarn, textiles, and fertilisers.Major trade partners: Switzerland, Russia, the United Kingdom, China, and Turkey.
Uzbekistan ranks among the top 10 global gold producers and is a major exporter of natural gas and cotton. Despite progress, the economy faces inflationary pressures (9.6% in 2024) and a current account deficit, partly offset by remittances (≈14% of GDP) from migrant workers abroad.
Economic reforms under Mirziyoyev aim to:

• liberalise currency and financial systems
• attract foreign investment
• expand renewable energy infrastructure
• reduce state dominance in industry

Energy and natural resources

Uzbekistan holds substantial natural gas reserves (1.84 trillion cubic metres), along with oil, coal, uranium, and gold deposits. Over 90% of electricity is generated from natural gas, though the Energy Strategy 2030 prioritises renewable alternatives and carbon reduction.
Installed capacity (2023): 17.9 million kWElectricity access: 100%Renewable energy: solar and hydro initiatives expanding rapidly under foreign investment partnerships.

Foreign relations

Uzbekistan follows a multi-vector foreign policy, balancing relations between Russia, China, Western countries, and its Central Asian neighbours. It is an active member of the United Nations (UN), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
Tashkent has emerged as a regional diplomatic hub, mediating on issues such as water resource management, border cooperation, and Afghan stability. Relations with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan have significantly improved since 2016, fostering regional economic integration.

Defence and security

The Armed Forces of Uzbekistan comprise the Army, Air and Air Defence Forces, and National Guard, totalling around 50,000 active personnel. The country prioritises border defence, counterterrorism, and internal security.

• Defence expenditure: ~2% of GDP
• Key partners: Russia, China, Turkey, and India
• Uzbekistan withdrew from the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) but continues to participate in SCO military exercises.

The government maintains vigilance against extremist groups such as the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Islamic Jihad Union (IJU).

Environment and sustainability

Uzbekistan faces acute environmental challenges, most notably the Aral Sea catastrophe, resulting from decades of over-irrigation during the Soviet period. The shrinking sea has caused toxic dust storms, rising salinity, and health crises, particularly in the Karakalpakstan region.
Environmental recovery efforts include:

• afforestation of the former seabed
• improved water management and irrigation efficiency
• renewable energy investment in solar and wind power

The nation emits about 111 million tonnes of CO₂ annually (ranked 40th globally). Waste recycling rates have risen to 30%, and the government is promoting green energy and circular economy initiatives.

Cultural heritage and society

Uzbekistan’s cultural identity blends Islamic, Turkic, Persian, and Soviet influences, reflected in its architecture, art, and literature. The ancient cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva—all UNESCO World Heritage Sites—stand as monumental legacies of the Silk Road era.