Turkey

The Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) is a transcontinental nation bridging Europe and Asia, occupying a strategically vital position between the Mediterranean, Black, and Aegean seas. Established in 1923 as the successor to the Ottoman Empire, Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk embarked on an ambitious programme of modernisation and secular reform that continues to shape its political and social identity. Today, Turkey functions as a presidential republic, combining rapid economic development and regional assertiveness with deep-rooted traditions and a complex geopolitical orientation between East and West.

Geography and Natural Features

Turkey covers 783,562 square kilometres, bordered by Armenia, Azerbaijan (Nakhchivan), Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Surrounded by the Black Sea, Aegean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea, it possesses a coastline of roughly 7,200 kilometres and a land border length of 2,816 kilometres. About 97% of its territory lies in Asia (Anatolia), with 3% in Europe (Eastern Thrace).
The Turkish Straits—comprising the Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, and Dardanelles—form one of the world’s most strategic waterways, connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and serving as a gateway for international maritime trade.
The landscape is dominated by the Anatolian Plateau, ringed by the Pontic Mountains in the north and the Taurus Mountains in the south. Mount Ararat (5,137 m), Turkey’s highest point, lies near the Armenian and Iranian borders and is traditionally associated with the legend of Noah’s Ark. The mean elevation is 1,132 metres, and irrigated land totals about 52,150 sq km.
Turkey’s climate varies by region: coastal areas enjoy a Mediterranean or Black Sea climate, while the interior experiences harsh continental conditions with hot, dry summers and cold winters. Major rivers include the Euphrates, Tigris, Kızılırmak, and Sakarya. Significant lakes include Lake Van, Lake Tuz, Lake Beyşehir, and Lake Eğirdir.
Natural resources comprise coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, borate, marble, gold, and hydropower potential. The country faces recurrent earthquakes—notably along the North Anatolian Fault—and periodic landslides and flooding.

Historical and Political Background

The Ottoman Empire’s dissolution following the First World War and Allied occupation of Anatolia triggered the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923), led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) recognised the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey, proclaimed on 29 October 1923.
Atatürk’s reforms transformed Turkey into a secular, unitary state grounded in nationalism, Westernisation, and state-led modernisation. Reforms included the adoption of the Latin alphabet, abolition of the Caliphate, women’s suffrage, and extensive education and legal restructuring.
Multi-party democracy began in 1950, but political instability and tensions between secular and religious forces led to repeated military coups in 1960, 1971, 1980, 1997, and a failed coup attempt in 2016.
Turkey joined the United Nations (1945) and NATO (1952), aligning strategically with the West during the Cold War. It became an associate member of the European Community (1963) and began EU accession negotiations (2005), though talks have largely stalled.
The 1974 Cyprus intervention established control over northern Cyprus, recognised by Turkey alone as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The long-running Kurdish conflict, led by the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) since 1984, remains a key internal and regional issue.
In 2017, a constitutional referendum replaced the parliamentary system with a presidential model, centralising executive power. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, president since 2014 and long-time leader of the Justice and Development Party (AKP), was reelected in 2023, consolidating his position as the dominant political figure of modern Turkey.

People and Society

Turkey’s population in 2024 is estimated at 84.1 million, making it the 18th most populous country globally. The median age is 34 years, and the population growth rate stands at 0.61%. Urbanisation is high at 77.5%, concentrated in Istanbul (15.8 million), Ankara (5.4 million), and Izmir (3.1 million).
Ethnically, Turks constitute 70–75% and Kurds about 19%, with smaller minorities of Arabs, Circassians, Armenians, and Greeks. The official language is Turkish, with Kurdish and other regional languages spoken in some areas.
Religion is overwhelmingly Islam (99.8%), mainly Sunni, with small Alevi, Christian, and Jewish minorities.
Key social indicators include:

• Life expectancy: 76.7 years (male 74.4, female 79.2)
• Fertility rate: 1.9 children per woman
• Literacy: 97%
• Education spending: 3.1% of GDP (2023)
• Health spending: 4.6% of GDP
• Physician density: 2.24 per 1,000 people
• Obesity prevalence: 32.1%
• Tobacco use: 30.1%

While urban living standards are relatively high, rural regions in eastern Anatolia remain economically disadvantaged. Persistent gender inequality and youth unemployment present major policy concerns.

Government and Administration

Turkey is a presidential republic governed under the 1982 Constitution, with significant amendments following the 2017 referendum.

• President: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (since 2014)
• Legislature: Grand National Assembly of Türkiye (TBMM) – 600 members elected by proportional representation for five-year terms
• Ruling party: Justice and Development Party (AKP) – 267 seats (2023 elections)

The President serves as both head of state and head of government, appointing ministers, issuing decrees, and overseeing national security.
The judiciary operates on European civil law, headed by the Constitutional Court, Court of Cassation, and Council of State. Turkey’s 81 provinces are governed by centrally appointed governors, with limited local autonomy.
National symbols include the red flag with a white star and crescent, representing Turkic and Islamic heritage, and the national anthem “İstiklâl Marşı” (March of Independence).

Economy

Turkey possesses a diversified upper-middle-income economy, ranked 12th globally (PPP) with a GDP of US$3.02 trillion in 2024 and per capita income of US$35,300. Economic strengths include manufacturing, construction, services, and tourism. However, currency volatility, high inflation (58.5%), and external imbalances pose ongoing challenges.
Sectoral composition (2024):

• Agriculture: 5.6%
• Industry: 25.9%
• Services: 56.8%

Trade:

• Exports: US$372.8 billion (2024) – garments, automobiles, gold, refined petroleum, vehicle parts
• Main partners: Germany (9%), USA (6%), UK (6%), UAE (5%)
• Imports: US$367 billion – gold, petroleum, natural gas, plastics, vehicles
• Main sources: China (13%), Russia (9%), Germany (9%)

Public debt remains low at 33.1% of GDP, while foreign reserves stand at US$154.8 billion. The current account deficit narrowed to US$9.97 billion in 2024. The Turkish lira (TRY) continues to depreciate, averaging 32.8 per US dollar in 2024.
The labour force numbers 36 million, with unemployment at 8.5% and youth unemployment at 15.6%. The Gini index of 44.5 reflects persistent income inequality, and about 13.9% of citizens live below the national poverty line.

Energy and Infrastructure

Turkey’s energy capacity reached 106.3 million kW (2023), with generation composed of 57.1% fossil fuels, 19.9% hydroelectric, 10.9% wind, 6.7% solar, and 2.8% geothermal. Nuclear energy development is advancing, with four reactors under construction.
Natural gas consumption totalled 50.2 bcm (2023), primarily imported from Russia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. Domestic reserves include 11 billion tonnes of coal and 366 million barrels of crude oil.
Infrastructure is extensive: 116 airports, 11,497 km of railways, and 54 ports, including major hubs at Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin, and Samsun. Telecommunications are highly developed, with 92 million mobile subscriptions and 87% internet penetration. Istanbul Airport ranks among the world’s largest aviation hubs.

Defence and Security

The Turkish Armed Forces (TAF), one of NATO’s largest, comprise about 495,000 active personnel and 150,000 Gendarmerie. The TAF includes land, naval, and air forces, supported by a thriving domestic defence industry producing drones, tanks, ships, and missile systems.
Defence spending stands at 2.1% of GDP (2024). Turkey participates in NATO and UN peacekeeping operations and maintains deployments in Azerbaijan, Libya, Somalia, Qatar, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Cyprus.
Internal security focuses on countering the PKK insurgency and managing regional instability from Syria and Iraq. The Turkish Space Agency (TUA), established in 2018, leads space and satellite programmes, including plans for a Somalia-based spaceport.

Environment and Natural Challenges

Key environmental issues include air and water pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss. Carbon emissions reached 399 million tonnes (2023), placing Turkey 15th globally. Annual municipal waste generation totals 35.4 million tonnes, with 32% recycled.
Turkey is party to major environmental conventions such as the Kyoto Protocol and has signed, but not yet ratified, the Paris Agreement. National initiatives promote renewable energy, energy efficiency, and urban sustainability under its “Green Development” strategy.

International Relations

Turkey pursues a multi-dimensional foreign policy, balancing its roles within NATO, its stalled EU accession process, and expanding ties with Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. It is a member of the G-20, OECD, OIC, Council of Europe, and United Nations, and an observer or dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.