Third Anglo-Burmese War

The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) was the final conflict between the British Empire and the Konbaung dynasty of Burma (modern-day Myanmar). It resulted in the complete annexation of Burma into the British Indian Empire, marking the end of Burmese sovereignty and the beginning of nearly six decades of colonial rule. The war was brief but decisive, driven largely by British imperial ambitions, commercial interests, and strategic considerations in Southeast Asia.

Background

By the late nineteenth century, Burma had already faced two major confrontations with the British: the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) and the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852). These conflicts resulted in heavy territorial losses for Burma, including Arakan, Tenasserim, and Lower Burma, which were annexed by the British.
Following these defeats, only Upper Burma, under the rule of King Thibaw Min, remained independent. The Burmese monarchy sought to modernise its administration, strengthen trade relations with other nations, and reassert its autonomy. However, this growing assertion alarmed the British, who viewed Burma’s diplomatic overtures to France as a potential threat to their dominance in the region.

Causes of the War

The causes of the Third Anglo-Burmese War were rooted in a combination of economic, political, and imperial factors.

1. Economic Interests: British merchants, particularly those in Rangoon, complained of alleged harassment and unfair treatment by Burmese officials. A dispute between the Burmese government and the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation, involving accusations of unpaid royalties for teak extraction, provided a pretext for intervention.
2. Fear of French Influence: King Thibaw Min sought to strengthen Burma’s international standing by negotiating trade and political agreements with France. The British, already wary of French expansion in Indochina, perceived this as a direct challenge to their sphere of influence.
3. Strategic Motives: The British considered Upper Burma’s annexation necessary to secure their eastern frontier and safeguard trade routes along the Irrawaddy River. Control over the region would also provide access to potential markets in China via Yunnan.
4. Pretext for War: In 1885, the British Government of India issued an ultimatum demanding the Burmese court accept a British-appointed resident at Mandalay and submit to arbitration over the trading dispute. When King Thibaw refused, the British declared war on 14 November 1885.

Course of the War

The Third Anglo-Burmese War was short-lived, lasting only a few weeks. The British expeditionary force, comprising about 9,000 troops under General Harry Prendergast, advanced rapidly from Rangoon up the Irrawaddy River towards Mandalay, the Burmese capital.

• British Advance: The British naval flotilla, including gunboats and steamers, easily overcame Burmese defences along the river. The Burmese army, though large, was poorly equipped and inadequately trained, relying mainly on traditional weapons and outdated tactics.
• Capture of Mandalay: Within two weeks, the British forces reached Mandalay. Realising the futility of resistance, King Thibaw Min surrendered on 28 November 1885. The royal family was taken prisoner and later exiled to Ratnagiri in India.
• End of the Kingdom: The capture of Mandalay marked the end of the Konbaung dynasty, which had ruled Burma since 1752. The British declared the annexation of Upper Burma on 1 January 1886, effectively bringing the entire country under colonial control.

Aftermath and Administration

Following the annexation, Burma was formally incorporated into the British Indian Empire as a province. The transition, however, was not smooth.

• Resistance and Rebellion: Widespread resistance broke out across the Burmese countryside between 1886 and 1890. Local chiefs, monks, and former royal officers organised guerrilla warfare against British forces. Although these uprisings were brutally suppressed, they revealed the depth of Burmese resentment towards foreign rule.
• Colonial Administration: The British replaced the monarchical system with a colonial bureaucracy headed by a Chief Commissioner. The capital was moved from Mandalay to Rangoon, which became the centre of administration and trade. Burmese institutions and traditions were marginalised, and English was introduced as the official language of governance.
• Economic Impact: The British introduced capitalist economic policies, emphasising rice cultivation for export, timber extraction, and trade expansion. While these changes modernised parts of Burma’s economy, they also disrupted traditional landholding systems and increased economic inequality.
• Cultural and Social Consequences: The annexation undermined the traditional role of the Buddhist Sangha (monastic community), which had been closely linked to the monarchy. British secular policies alienated many Burmese, leading to the rise of nationalism in the early twentieth century.

Significance of the War

The Third Anglo-Burmese War had far-reaching consequences for both Burma and the British Empire.

• End of Burmese Independence: The war permanently ended the sovereignty of the Burmese monarchy, turning Burma into a colonial dependency of Britain for over six decades.
• Expansion of the British Empire: The annexation extended British territorial control from India into mainland Southeast Asia, consolidating their position against French interests in Indochina.
• Economic Transformation: Under British rule, Burma became one of the world’s leading rice exporters. However, economic growth primarily benefited British companies and Indian immigrants rather than the native Burmese.
• Seeds of Nationalism: The loss of sovereignty and cultural dislocation under colonial rule laid the foundation for Burmese nationalism, which would eventually culminate in the independence movement of the twentieth century.

Legacy

The Third Anglo-Burmese War represents a turning point in the history of Southeast Asia. It marked the final phase of British expansion on the Indian subcontinent and the end of one of Asia’s ancient monarchies. The forced integration of Burma into the British Empire introduced modern infrastructure, education, and global trade links, but at the cost of deep political and cultural disruption.