Terracotta Army

The Terracotta Army, one of the most remarkable archaeological discoveries of the twentieth century, is a vast collection of life-sized clay soldiers, horses, and chariots buried near the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. Unearthed in 1974 in Lintong District, Xi’an, in the Shaanxi Province, the Terracotta Army was created over two millennia ago to accompany and protect the emperor in the afterlife. This extraordinary find provides invaluable insight into the military organisation, craftsmanship, and funerary practices of ancient China, particularly during the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE).

Historical Background

The Terracotta Army was constructed during the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), who unified China for the first time in 221 BCE, establishing the Qin Dynasty. Determined to ensure his power and immortality beyond death, Qin ordered the construction of a massive underground mausoleum complex soon after he ascended the throne. Historical records, particularly those written by the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), describe a colossal tomb containing rivers of mercury, model palaces, and celestial constellations crafted to mirror the emperor’s earthly realm.
The creation of the Terracotta Army was part of this grand funerary complex, symbolising the emperor’s belief in the continuity of life after death and his desire to command a mighty army in the next world. Construction is believed to have begun around 246 BCE and lasted nearly four decades, involving over 700,000 labourers and artisans.

Discovery and Excavation

The Terracotta Army remained undiscovered for over 2,000 years until March 1974, when local farmers digging a well near Xi’an accidentally unearthed fragments of terracotta figures. Subsequent archaeological excavations, led by the Chinese Archaeological Team, revealed the vast scale of the site.
Three major pits have been identified, covering an area of over 22,000 square metres:

• Pit 1: The largest and most impressive, measuring about 230 metres long and 62 metres wide, contains over 6,000 soldiers arranged in typical battle formation.
• Pit 2: Houses around 1,400 figures, including cavalry, archers, and war chariots.
• Pit 3: Smaller in size, with about 70 figures, believed to represent the army’s command headquarters.

A fourth, unfinished pit suggests that construction was halted, possibly due to the emperor’s death and the subsequent rebellion that ended the Qin Dynasty.
The site forms part of the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, which spans nearly 56 square kilometres, making it one of the largest imperial tombs in the world.

Description and Composition

Each figure in the Terracotta Army is unique, with distinct facial features, hairstyles, and expressions, reflecting regional diversity and rank within the military hierarchy. The army includes:

• Infantry soldiers (both standing and kneeling archers),
• Cavalrymen and horses,
• Chariot drivers,
• Generals and officers,
• Musicians and officials, and
• War chariots and weapons crafted from bronze and wood.

The figures range in height from 1.75 to 2.1 metres, corresponding to their military rank—the tallest being generals. Originally, they were brightly painted in red, blue, green, purple, and gold pigments, although most colours faded upon exposure to air after excavation.
The weapons discovered—bronze swords, crossbows, spears, and halberds—remain remarkably well-preserved, demonstrating the Qin artisans’ advanced metallurgical skills.

Construction Techniques

The making of the Terracotta Army combined mass production with intricate hand-finishing. Each part—head, arms, legs, and torso—was moulded separately using clay, then assembled and fired in kilns. After hardening, artisans carved facial details, hairstyles, and armour to personalise each figure.
Studies have revealed that standardised templates were used for different ranks, indicating a highly organised production system comparable to an early form of assembly-line manufacturing. Traces of lacquer and pigments show that the army was originally painted to appear lifelike.

Historical and Cultural Significance

The Terracotta Army represents a pinnacle of ancient Chinese funerary art and imperial ideology. Its construction reflects not only Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s quest for immortality but also the political and military achievements of the Qin Dynasty, which unified China’s warring states under a centralised imperial system.
Key aspects of its significance include:

• Historical Insight: Offers a detailed representation of Qin military organisation, weaponry, and uniforms.
• Technological Achievement: Demonstrates advanced craftsmanship in pottery, metallurgy, and large-scale production.
• Cultural Symbolism: Reflects ancient Chinese beliefs in the afterlife and the emperor’s divine authority.
• Artistic Legacy: Showcases realism and diversity in sculptural art, marking a turning point in Chinese artistic tradition.

The army’s realism and size also symbolised the might of Qin’s rule, projecting imperial power even in death.

The Mausoleum Complex

The mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang, which remains largely unexcavated, is believed to be a vast subterranean world designed to replicate the emperor’s court. Geophysical surveys indicate chambers containing treasures, palaces, and a topographical model of his empire. Historical accounts claim that rivers of mercury were created to represent seas and waterways, consistent with modern scientific tests showing high mercury levels in the soil.
The main burial mound rises to about 76 metres and is surrounded by walls, satellite pits, and auxiliary burials, including stables, acrobats, and officials—all intended to serve the emperor in the afterlife.

UNESCO World Heritage Site

In 1987, the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, including the Terracotta Army, was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. It is recognised for its outstanding universal value as a masterpiece of human creativity and a testament to China’s early imperial civilisation. The site attracts millions of visitors annually and remains a symbol of China’s cultural and historical heritage.

Ongoing Research and Preservation

Excavation and conservation efforts continue under strict supervision by the Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s Mausoleum Site Museum. Technological advancements in 3D scanning, infrared imaging, and chemical stabilisation have helped preserve fragile artefacts and restore pigments.
Archaeologists are cautious about excavating the emperor’s central tomb chamber due to concerns about preservation and the potential release of hazardous substances such as mercury vapour. As a result, much of the mausoleum remains unexplored, preserving its mysteries for future generations.