Tamilakam and the Sangam Age

Tamilakam refers to the ancient geographical region of South India inhabited by the Tamil-speaking people. It broadly covered the modern states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, including northern Sri Lanka. The Sangam Age represents the earliest historical period of Tamilakam, roughly spanning from 300 BCE to 300 CE, characterised by the flourishing of Tamil literature known as Sangam literature. This era marked the rise of early Tamil kingdoms, vibrant trade, urbanisation, and a sophisticated cultural and social order, forming the foundation of South Indian civilisation.

Geographical Extent and Political Division

The term Tamilakam appears in early Tamil texts such as the Tolkappiyam and Silappadikaram, denoting the land of the Tamils. It extended from the Venkatam Hills (Tirupati) in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south, and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Politically, Tamilakam was divided among three powerful and enduring dynasties, collectively known as the Muvendar or “Three Crowned Kings”:

• Chera Dynasty: Ruled the western part of Tamilakam (modern-day Kerala and western Tamil Nadu) with capitals at Vanji and Karur.
• Chola Dynasty: Controlled the fertile Kaveri delta region in the east, with their capital at Uraiyur and later at Puhar (Kaveripattinam).
• Pandya Dynasty: Ruled the southern region with their capital at Madurai, a prominent cultural and trade centre.

Besides these, several minor chieftains and tribal polities, known as Velir and Kurunila Mannar, ruled smaller territories.

The Sangam Assemblies and Literature

The term Sangam means an assembly or academy of poets and scholars. According to Tamil tradition, there were three successive Sangams patronised by the Pandya kings of Madurai. While the existence of the first two is considered semi-legendary, the Third Sangam, centred at Madurai, is historically recognised.
The literature produced during this period, collectively called Sangam literature, is the oldest extant body of secular writing in any Indian language. It was composed in classical Tamil and compiled between 300 BCE and 300 CE.
Major works of the Sangam corpus include:

• Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies): Contains poems such as Akananuru, Purananuru, Kuruntokai, and Natrinai.
• Pathuppattu (Ten Idylls): Includes works like Pattinappalai and Maduraikkanji.
• Tolkappiyam: The earliest extant Tamil grammar and a valuable source on social and cultural life.
• Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works): Didactic texts that include Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, emphasising moral and ethical values.
• Epic Literature: Post-Sangam works such as Silappadikaram and Manimekalai represent the culmination of classical Tamil culture.

These works describe not only the social, political, and economic conditions of the time but also express profound poetic beauty, emotional depth, and ethical insight.

Political and Administrative Structure

The Sangam period saw the emergence of well-organised monarchies under the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings. Each ruler was assisted by ministers, military chiefs, and officials overseeing revenue, trade, and justice.

• The kings maintained standing armies and naval forces, particularly the Cholas, who controlled coastal trade.
• The Velirs, or local chieftains, served as subordinates or allies to the great monarchs.
• Governance was decentralised, with local assemblies (sabhas) managing village affairs.
• The royal courts patronised poets and scholars, reflecting the close connection between politics and culture.

Society and Culture

Sangam society was complex and stratified yet retained a degree of fluidity compared to later periods.
1. Social Structure:

• The society comprised several occupational groups, including farmers, warriors, merchants, artisans, fishermen, and pastoralists.
• References to varna divisions exist but were not rigidly enforced as in northern India. Social mobility and merit were recognised, particularly among warriors and poets.
• Women enjoyed respectable positions, and some, like Avvaiyar and Kakkai Padiniyar, gained fame as poets and scholars.

2. Religion:

• Religious life was pluralistic, with the worship of deities such as Murugan, Korravai, Mayon (Vishnu), and Seyon (Skanda).
• Ancestor worship and hero worship (Nadukal tradition) were common.
• Jainism and Buddhism also gained followers, particularly during the later Sangam period.

3. Family and Marriage:

• The family was patriarchal, but women had the right to choose partners and participate in cultural life.
• Love and marriage customs are vividly depicted in Akam (interior) poetry, which explores human emotions and relationships.

Economy and Trade

The economy of Tamilakam during the Sangam Age was prosperous and diversified, supported by agriculture, industry, and maritime trade.
1. Agriculture:

• Paddy cultivation formed the backbone of the economy, aided by fertile river valleys like the Kaveri delta.
• Crops included rice, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, and pulses.

2. Craft and Industry:

• Skilled craftsmanship flourished in metallurgy, bead-making, ivory carving, and textile weaving.
• Goldsmiths and potters produced fine ornaments and utensils, many of which were traded abroad.

3. Trade and Commerce:

• Internal trade was facilitated by markets (angadis) and caravan routes.
• External trade with Rome, Egypt, Arabia, and Southeast Asia is well-documented through both literary and archaeological sources.
• Roman coins discovered in Tamil Nadu, especially at Arikamedu, Puhar, and Karur, testify to vibrant Indo-Roman trade.
• Export items included pepper, pearls, ivory, and textiles, while imports consisted of gold, wine, and luxury goods.

Urbanisation and Ports

Urban centres such as Madurai, Uraiyur, and Kaveripattinam (Puhar) emerged as major political, cultural, and trade hubs. Coastal ports connected Tamilakam to global maritime routes across the Indian Ocean.
Important ports:

• Muziris (Muchiri): Main Chera port on the western coast.
• Korkai: Ancient Pandya port known for pearl fisheries.
• Puhar (Kaveripattinam): Major Chola port city and a flourishing trade centre.

These urban settlements were cosmopolitan, hosting traders from Greece, Rome, and Southeast Asia, and contributed to the spread of new ideas and technologies.

Art, Literature, and Entertainment

The Sangam Age was a golden era of Tamil art and literature.

• Poetry and music were integral to society, with poets enjoying royal patronage.
• Drama, dance, and festivals formed part of social and religious life.
• The concept of tinai (landscape-based poetic theme) classified poetry according to ecological regions such as mountains (kurinji), forests (mullai), agricultural lands (marutham), coastal zones (neithal), and deserts (palai). Each represented distinct emotions, occupations, and deities.

Decline of the Sangam Age

By the 3rd century CE, the Sangam Age gradually declined due to political instability, internal conflicts among the three major dynasties, and changes in trade routes following the fall of the Roman Empire. However, the cultural and literary traditions it produced continued to influence later Tamil society, particularly during the early medieval period under the Pallavas and Imperial Cholas.