Syrian Arab Republic

The Syrian Arab Republic, commonly known as Syria, is a nation located in Western Asia along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It shares borders with Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel. The country’s capital, Damascus, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and a historical centre of Arab culture and civilisation. Over the past century, Syria has endured colonial rule, regional wars, and a protracted civil conflict that has reshaped its political landscape and demographic composition.

Historical background

Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, the League of Nations placed Syria under a French Mandate in 1920, dividing the territory into several administrative regions. French rule continued until 1946, when Syria achieved full independence. The post-independence era was marked by political instability, numerous military coups, and fluctuating alliances.
In 1958, Syria entered a short-lived union with Egypt, forming the United Arab Republic under President Gamal Abdel Nasser. The experiment ended in 1961, restoring Syria’s sovereignty as the Syrian Arab Republic.
During the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to Israel, a strategic territory that remains under Israeli occupation. In 1970, Hafiz al-Assad, an Alawite military officer and member of the Ba’ath Party, seized power in a coup d’état, establishing a highly centralised and authoritarian regime. His government maintained stability through strict political control, security apparatus dominance, and suppression of dissent.
Upon his death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad assumed power, continuing the family’s dynastic rule. The Syrian Civil War, which erupted in 2011 during the Arab Spring, began as peaceful demonstrations calling for democratic reforms but escalated into a complex, multi-factional conflict involving government forces, rebel groups, Islamist factions, Kurdish militias, and foreign powers.
Russian military intervention from 2015 onwards reversed the tide in favour of the Assad government, allowing it to reclaim much of the lost territory. However, millions of Syrians were killed or displaced, and the country suffered immense humanitarian and infrastructural devastation.
A turning point came on 8 December 2024, when a coalition of Islamist rebel factions captured Damascus, overthrowing Bashar al-Assad and ending more than five decades of Ba’athist rule. Assad and his family fled to Moscow, where they were granted asylum. In March 2025, a transitional administration led by Prime Minister Muhammad al-Bashir took office under a new interim constitution designed to govern for five years pending national elections.

Geography and environment

Syria spans 187,437 square kilometres, encompassing predominantly semi-arid and desert terrain interspersed with mountainous regions in the west and fertile plains along the Euphrates River. The Euphrates, the country’s primary water source, sustains agricultural production in the central and eastern regions before flowing into Iraq.
The climate is largely arid, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Coastal areas experience a more Mediterranean climate, while snow occasionally falls in the highlands, including Damascus.
Land use (2022):

• Agricultural land: 73.5% (arable 23.8%, permanent crops 5.6%, pasture 44.1%)
• Forest: 2.8%
• Other: 23.7%

Syria’s natural resources include petroleum, phosphates, gypsum, marble, and limited hydropower potential. The civil war, however, severely damaged extraction facilities and water infrastructure. Environmental challenges include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, and water scarcity, compounded by conflict-related destruction and population displacement.

People and society

As of 2024, Syria’s population was estimated at 23.86 million, excluding millions of refugees abroad. The population is ethnically and religiously diverse, comprising Arabs (50%), Alawites (15%), Kurds (10%), Levantines (10%), and other minorities such as Druze, Ismailis, Armenians, and Turkomans.
Languages: Arabic is the official language, while Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian, French, and English are spoken regionally.
Religions: The majority of Syrians are Muslim (87%), including 74% Sunni and 13% Alawite, Shia, or Ismaili. Christians make up about 10%, and Druze around 3%, although emigration has reduced the Christian population.
Demographic indicators (2024):

• Median age: 24.1 years
• Population growth: 1.67%
• Life expectancy: 74.8 years (male 73.4, female 76.4)
• Infant mortality: 15.1 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 2.69 children per woman
• Literacy: 94% (male 97%, female 92%)

The humanitarian impact of conflict remains severe: approximately 6.7 million people are internally displaced, while 5.6 million refugees reside mainly in Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt.

Government and politics

The Syrian Arab Republic operates under a transitional framework established in March 2025 following the collapse of the Assad regime. The provisional interim constitution outlines an executive-led system intended to restore governance and prepare for democratic elections within five years.

• Prime Minister: Muhammad al-Bashir (Transitional Head of Government, 2025–)
• Legislature: People’s Assembly (250 members), functioning in limited capacity due to decentralised control
• Legal system: Combines civil law and Islamic (Sharia) principles, particularly in personal and family law
• Judiciary: Supreme Constitutional Court (constitutional oversight) and Court of Cassation (highest appellate body)

Administrative divisions: Syria consists of 14 provinces (muhafazat), including Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Idlib, Latakia, Tartus, Damascus, and Deir ez-Zor.
In 2025, Syria reinstated the green-white-black tricolour flag with three red stars, historically associated with independence and opposition unity. The northern bald ibis, chosen as the new national emblem, symbolises rebirth and resilience.

Economy

More than a decade of war, sanctions, and state collapse have left Syria’s economy in a state of near ruin. GDP (PPP) in 2023 stood at approximately $98.9 billion, with GDP per capita of $4,200, ranking among the lowest globally.
Sectoral composition (2022):

• Agriculture: 43.1%
• Industry: 12%
• Services: 44.9%

Agriculture remains the dominant sector, producing wheat, barley, olives, citrus, milk, and vegetables. Industrial activity is minimal, focusing on phosphate mining, textiles, food processing, and limited oil refining.
Key economic indicators:

• Inflation (2022): 94.1%
• Unemployment: 13% (2024)
• External debt: $4.57 billion (2023)
• Exchange rate (2022): 2,505 Syrian pounds per USD
• Exports: $1.6 billion (olive oil, phosphates, cotton, spices)
• Imports: $6.8 billion (mainly from Turkey, UAE, China)

The economy is heavily informal and aid-dependent, with humanitarian assistance and reconstruction funds from international institutions such as the World Bank providing limited relief. Oil production, once a key revenue source, has fallen from 380,000 barrels per day in 2010 to 65,000 barrels in 2023, mostly controlled by Kurdish forces in the northeast.

Energy and infrastructure

Decades of conflict have devastated Syria’s energy and transport infrastructure. Electricity generation in 2023 totalled 9.64 million kW, predominantly from fossil fuels (95.6%), with hydropower (3.8%) and minimal solar energy (0.5%).
Electricity access (2023):

• Total population: 89%
• Urban areas: 100%
• Rural areas: 75%

Syria’s proven crude oil reserves are estimated at 2.5 billion barrels, while natural gas reserves stand at 240 billion cubic metres, concentrated in Deir ez-Zor and Hasakah. Transportation networks, including roads, railways, and airports, have been severely damaged but are gradually being restored under international aid programmes.

Defence and security

Since 2024, Syria’s armed forces have fragmented, with the interim government attempting to unify diverse militias and regional forces. A Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior were established in 2025, though effective national control remains incomplete.
Foreign military presence:

• Turkey maintains control over northern border areas.
• Kurdish-led SDF dominates the northeast.
• Israel occupies parts of the Golan Heights.
• UNDOF operates along ceasefire lines with around 1,300 personnel.

Remnants of Islamic State (ISIS) and Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) continue to threaten security in parts of Idlib and eastern Syria. The new administration faces the dual challenge of demobilisation and counterterrorism amid fragile governance.

Society, culture, and heritage

Syria’s cultural heritage reflects millennia of human civilisation, encompassing Mesopotamian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Ottoman influences. The country’s six UNESCO World Heritage Sites—including the Ancient Cities of Damascus, Aleppo, Bosra, and Palmyra, and the Crac des Chevaliers—testify to its historical richness, though many have sustained severe war damage.
Traditional culture is expressed in music, poetry, cuisine, and crafts, notably Damascene mosaic art and silk weaving. Literature and art remain powerful expressions of resilience and exile, themes central to the modern Syrian identity.
The national anthem, “Ħumāt ad-Diyār” (“Guardians of the Homeland”), continues to symbolise patriotism and endurance, while Independence Day (17 April) commemorates liberation from French rule in 1946.