Sudan

The Republic of the Sudan, located in northeastern Africa, is one of the continent’s largest and most historically significant nations. Its territory—stretching from the Red Sea to the Sahel—has hosted some of Africa’s earliest civilisations, serving for millennia as a crossroads of cultures linking the Nile Valley, the Arabian Peninsula, and sub-Saharan Africa. Sudan’s modern identity reflects a complex legacy of ancient kingdoms, Islamic influence, colonial rule, and prolonged post-independence conflict.

Historical Background

The area now known as Sudan was once the heartland of ancient Nubia, home to the Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BCE), one of Africa’s earliest urban societies. Kerma was later absorbed into Egypt’s New Kingdom, but Nubian culture persisted, giving rise to the Kingdom of Kush (c. 1100 BCE–350 CE), which ruled both Nubia and parts of Egypt. The Kushite dynasty established capitals at Napata and Meroe, known for monumental pyramids, ironworking, and regional trade that linked central Africa with the Mediterranean world.
Following the fall of Kush, the region fragmented into three Christian Nubian states—Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia—which endured until the fifteenth century. Their decline coincided with the spread of Islam and the influx of Arab tribes, transforming Sudan’s linguistic and cultural composition. By the nineteenth century, northern Sudan was integrated into the expanding Ottoman-Egyptian sphere. Egyptian forces, acting under Ottoman authority, conquered the region in 1821, imposing new administrative and economic systems.
Resistance to foreign domination culminated in the Mahdist Revolt (1881–1898), a nationalist and religious uprising led by Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi, who established a theocratic state centred in Omdurman. British and Egyptian troops reconquered Sudan in 1898, creating the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899–1956), nominally a dual rule but effectively dominated by Britain.
Sudan achieved independence on 1 January 1956, but postcolonial governance was marked by alternating civilian and military regimes. Deep divisions between the Muslim, Arabic-speaking north and the ethnically diverse, largely non-Muslim south precipitated two long civil wars (1955–1972 and 1983–2005). The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2005 ended the second war, leading to the secession of South Sudan in 2011.
Conflict persisted elsewhere, notably in Darfur (from 2003), where fighting between government-backed militias and insurgents caused mass displacement and allegations of genocide. Rebellions also emerged in Blue Nile and South Kordofan.
In 2019, widespread protests over economic hardship ended the 30-year rule of Omar al-Bashir, who was deposed by the military. A transitional government led by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok sought to establish civilian rule but was overthrown in a military coup in 2021. Since April 2023, war between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has devastated the nation, creating one of the world’s gravest humanitarian crises.

Geography and Environment

Sudan is Africa’s third-largest country, covering 1,861,484 square kilometres. It borders Egypt, Libya, Chad, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea, and possesses 853 kilometres of Red Sea coastline. The terrain consists largely of flat plains and deserts, with the Nubian Desert in the north and mountains in the west and east. The Jabal Marrah range (3,042 m) in Darfur forms the country’s highest elevation.
The Nile River, formed by the confluence of the White Nile and Blue Nile at Khartoum, sustains agriculture, transport, and settlement. Sudan’s climate ranges from arid desert in the north to semi-tropical savannah in the south, with a rainy season extending from April to November.
Natural resources include petroleum, gold, copper, iron ore, and fertile land, though development is impeded by conflict and inadequate infrastructure. About 60% of land is used for agriculture, concentrated along the Nile. Environmental problems—desertification, deforestation, and water scarcity—threaten long-term sustainability, particularly in the face of rapid population growth and displacement.

People and Society

As of 2024, Sudan’s population was estimated at 50.5 million, comprising more than 500 ethnic groups. Around 70% identify as Sudanese Arab, while other major communities include the Fur, Beja, Nuba, and Ingessana peoples. Arabic and English are the official languages; regional languages such as Nubian, Fur, and Beja are also widely spoken.
The population is predominantly Sunni Muslim, with small Christian and indigenous religious minorities, particularly in urban areas and the border regions.
Sudan is demographically young, with a median age of 19.3 years and a population growth rate of 2.55%. The fertility rate remains high at 4.47 children per woman, while life expectancy averages 67.8 years. Public services are severely strained: only 65% of the population has access to safe drinking water, and health expenditure amounts to 2.8% of GDP. Education access remains limited, with a school life expectancy of seven years and notable gender and regional disparities.

Government and Politics

Sudan is formally a presidential republic, but military rule has dominated since the 2019 overthrow of President al-Bashir. The 2019 Constitutional Declaration created a Sovereign Council to share power between civilians and the military, but this arrangement collapsed after the October 2021 coup led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, who remains de facto head of state and government.
The capital, Khartoum, has been the primary theatre of conflict since 2023. Sudan is divided administratively into 18 states (wilayat), though many local governments have ceased functioning amid the war. The Transitional Legislative Council, mandated to oversee governance, was never established, leaving the state without a functioning parliament or constitution.
The judicial system combines Islamic law (Sharia) and English common law, though judicial operations are heavily disrupted. No national elections have been held since 2010.

Economy

Sudan’s economy has been deeply undermined by decades of conflict, sanctions, and mismanagement. The loss of most oil reserves following South Sudan’s independence in 2011 reduced export revenue by over 70%. War and instability have further crippled production and trade.
In 2024, GDP was estimated at US$49.9 billion, with a contraction of –13.5%. GDP per capita fell to US$1,900, among the lowest globally. The economy remains heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture, small-scale trade, and gold exports.
Sectoral composition (2024):

• Agriculture (22%) – sorghum, sesame, peanuts, sugarcane, and livestock.
• Industry (23%) – light manufacturing, textiles, oil refining, and cement.
• Services (55%) – largely informal, disrupted by war and displacement.

Inflation has exceeded 130%, while unemployment remains above 11%, accompanied by pervasive underemployment. Sudan’s external debt totals about US$21.6 billion, and foreign reserves are virtually exhausted.
Trade (2022 estimates):

• Exports: US$5.9 billion – crude oil, gold, livestock, oilseeds.
• Imports: US$11.6 billion – sugar, wheat, fuel, medicine.
• Main partners: United Arab Emirates, China, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Malaysia.

Energy and Infrastructure

Electricity access covers about 63% of the population, but rural electrification lags below 50%. Power generation relies chiefly on hydropower (68%) and fossil fuels (30%), with chronic shortages and blackouts. Sudan produces around 68,000 barrels of oil per day (2023) from depleted fields and retains proven reserves of 1.25 billion barrels.
Transport and communications networks are severely degraded due to conflict. While mobile penetration exceeds 74%, internet access remains limited (26%) and frequently disrupted by censorship and infrastructure damage.

Defence and Security

The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) constitute the regular military, comprising army, air force, and navy units. They are rivalled by the powerful Rapid Support Forces (RSF), an autonomous paramilitary organisation originating from the Darfur conflict’s Janjaweed militias.
In April 2023, power struggles between the SAF under General al-Burhan and RSF commander Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (“Hemedti”) erupted into full-scale civil war. Fighting has engulfed major cities, including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Nyala, leading to extensive civilian casualties and displacement. Both sides face accusations of war crimes and ethnic cleansing, particularly in Darfur.
Before the conflict, the SAF numbered roughly 200,000 personnel, while the RSF fielded about 100,000 fighters. The UN arms embargo on Darfur, first imposed in 2005, remains active and was renewed in 2024.

Society, Culture, and Heritage

Sudan’s cultural identity draws from African, Arab, and Islamic influences layered over its ancient Nubian foundations. Traditional music, poetry, and handicrafts reflect regional diversity, while Arabic serves as the lingua franca of administration and education.
The country possesses three UNESCO World Heritage Sites:

• Gebel Barkal and the Napatan Region, ancient Kushite temples and pyramids.
• The Island of Meroe, capital of the later Kushite kingdom.
• Sanganeb Marine National Park and Dungonab Bay–Mukkawar Island, a Red Sea ecosystem rich in marine biodiversity.

The national flag—red, white, black, and green—symbolises Arab unity, peace, and freedom. The secretary bird serves as the national emblem, and Islamic motifs dominate public architecture and design.