Sri Lanka

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon, is an island nation in Southern Asia, located just south of India in the Indian Ocean. Despite its modest size, Sri Lanka holds strategic maritime significance on major sea lanes linking East and West Asia. The country’s long and intricate history has been shaped by ancient kingdoms, colonial rule, and post-independence ethnic and political conflict. Today, Sri Lanka functions as a presidential republic with a mixed legal tradition, a multiethnic society, and an economy in recovery following recent crises.

Historical background

The earliest known settlers of Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese, are believed to have migrated from northern India around the 6th century B.C.. Buddhism, introduced in the 3rd century B.C., became a defining cultural and religious influence, shaping the island’s governance, art, and social structure. Early Sinhalese civilisations centred on Anuradhapura (200 B.C.–A.D. 1000) and later Polonnaruwa (1070–1200), establishing sophisticated irrigation systems and monumental architecture.
From the 14th century, Tamil rulers from South India established an independent kingdom in the north, leading to enduring regional and ethnic distinctions between the Sinhalese Buddhist south and the Tamil Hindu north.
European colonisation began with the Portuguese in the 16th century, succeeded by the Dutch in the 17th century, and finally by the British in 1796. The British unified the island as a crown colony in 1802 and consolidated rule by 1815 after the fall of the Kandyan Kingdom. Colonial administration introduced plantation agriculture—particularly tea, coffee, and rubber—alongside Western education and infrastructure development.
Sri Lanka achieved independence from Britain on 4 February 1948, initially retaining the name Ceylon. The nation became a republic in 1972, adopting its present title.

Ethnic conflict and civil war

Post-independence politics were dominated by ethnic divisions. Policies favouring the Sinhalese majority—such as the Sinhala Only Act (1956) and university admission quotas—marginalised the Tamil minority, fuelling demands for regional autonomy. By the early 1980s, these tensions erupted into a prolonged civil conflict between government forces and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a separatist organisation seeking an independent Tamil state in the north and east.
The civil war, lasting from 1983 to 2009, resulted in over 70,000 deaths and mass displacement. A 2002 Norwegian-brokered ceasefire temporarily halted hostilities but broke down by 2006. The conflict ended decisively in May 2009, when government forces defeated the LTTE.
Post-war reconstruction under President Mahinda Rajapaksa (2005–2015) saw rapid infrastructure development—much of it financed through Chinese loans—but was accompanied by allegations of human rights abuses and increasing authoritarian control.

Recent political developments

The 2015 coalition government of Maithripala Sirisena and Ranil Wickremesinghe pledged democratic reforms but made limited progress. The Rajapaksa family returned to power in 2019 with Gotabaya Rajapaksa as president. However, economic mismanagement, corruption, and rising debt led to an unprecedented financial collapse.
By 2022, foreign reserves were depleted, inflation exceeded 50%, and nationwide shortages of food, fuel, and medicine triggered mass protests. President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fled the country, and Ranil Wickremesinghe assumed the presidency amid continuing unrest.
The 2024 presidential election marked a political turning point. Anura Kumara Dissanayake of the National People’s Power (NPP) coalition won 55.9% of the vote, forming a government with Harini Amarasuriya as prime minister. The new administration prioritised economic recovery, debt restructuring, and anti-corruption reforms.

Geography and environment

Sri Lanka covers 65,610 square kilometres, roughly the size of Ireland, and lies between latitudes 5° and 10°N. The island’s geography features coastal plains, central highlands, and river valleys. The highest point, Pidurutalagala (2,524 m), rises near Nuwara Eliya.
The nation experiences a tropical monsoon climate, influenced by two seasonal monsoons: the northeast (December–March) and southwest (June–October). Average annual temperatures range between 26°C and 28°C in coastal areas, with cooler conditions in upland regions.
Key natural resources include gems, graphite, limestone, phosphates, and hydropower, as well as fertile agricultural land. However, Sri Lanka faces environmental pressures from deforestation, soil erosion, and coastal degradation. The island hosts eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Kandy, and the Sinharaja Forest Reserve, recognised for their cultural and ecological importance.

Population and society

As of 2024, Sri Lanka’s population is approximately 21.98 million. Ethnic composition reflects its complex heritage: Sinhalese (74.9%), Sri Lankan Tamils (11.2%), Moors (9.2%), and Indian Tamils (4.2%).
The official languages are Sinhala and Tamil, while English serves as a widely used administrative and educational “link language.”
Religious affiliation is dominated by Buddhism (70.2%), followed by Hinduism (12.6%), Islam (9.7%), and Christianity (7.4%). Religious coexistence, though generally stable, has occasionally been strained by ethnic politics.
Sri Lanka’s literacy rate stands at 93%, one of the highest in South Asia, supported by free education since 1945. Life expectancy averages 76.8 years, and the fertility rate is 2.1 children per woman. Urbanisation remains modest, with only 19% of the population living in cities such as Colombo, Kandy, Galle, and Jaffna.

Government and politics

Sri Lanka operates as a presidential republic with a unicameral Parliament of 225 members, elected through proportional representation. The President serves as both head of state and government for a five-year term.

• President: Anura Kumara Dissanayake (since September 2024)
• Prime Minister: Harini Amarasuriya (since September 2024)
• Parliamentary majority: National People’s Power (NPP), 159 of 225 seats (November 2024)

The legal system integrates Roman-Dutch civil law, English common law, and customary law practices. The country is divided into nine provinces and 25 districts, with Colombo as the commercial capital and Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte as the legislative capital.

Economy

Sri Lanka’s GDP was estimated at $98.96 billion (2024), reflecting recovery from the 2022 sovereign debt default—the first in its history. Following an IMF-supported restructuring programme, GDP grew by 5% in 2024 after two consecutive years of contraction.
The economy is primarily service-oriented (57.5%), followed by industry (25.5%) and agriculture (8.3%). Major exports include garments, tea, rubber products, and precious stones, with principal markets in the United States, India, and Germany.
Remittances from overseas workers and tourism each contribute significantly to foreign exchange earnings, accounting together for over 10% of GDP. Inflation, which exceeded 50% in 2022, fell to –0.4% in 2024. Despite stabilisation, public debt remains high at 79% of GDP, while foreign reserves improved to $6.1 billion. Unemployment is officially 5%, but youth unemployment surpasses 22%.

Infrastructure and energy

Sri Lanka has achieved universal electricity access, with energy production derived 49% from fossil fuels and 41% from hydropower. Expansion of solar and wind energy forms part of new green investment programmes under the NPP government.
The island’s transport infrastructure includes six major ports—notably Colombo, Hambantota, and Trincomalee—and 18 airports, with Bandaranaike International Airport serving as the primary international hub. Telecommunications are advanced, with 30 million mobile subscriptions and 51% internet penetration nationwide.

Defence and security

The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard, total around 210,000 active personnel (2025). Although demilitarisation is planned by 2030, the military remains influential in national reconstruction and economic activities such as agriculture, construction, and tourism.
Sri Lanka maintains close security cooperation with India, particularly in maritime surveillance, while China provides training and port infrastructure assistance. The country also contributes personnel to UN peacekeeping missions in Mali, Lebanon, and the Central African Republic.

National identity and culture

Sri Lanka’s national flag, the Lion Flag, symbolises its multiethnic composition: the lion represents the Sinhalese majority, orange the Tamils, green the Moors, and the four bo leaves embody the Buddhist virtues of kindness, equanimity, happiness, and friendliness. The national anthem, “Sri Lanka Matha” (“Mother Sri Lanka”), adopted in 1951, is sung in both Sinhala and Tamil, reflecting linguistic inclusivity.