South Sudan

South Sudan, officially known as the Republic of South Sudan, is the world’s youngest nation, having attained independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011. Situated in East-Central Africa, it shares borders with Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic. Despite its rich natural resources and fertile agricultural land, the country continues to struggle with political instability, humanitarian crises, and economic fragility rooted in decades of conflict and underdevelopment.

Historical Background

The region of present-day South Sudan has long been inhabited by Nilotic ethnic groups, notably the Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk, who migrated to the area between the 15th and 19th centuries. These communities traditionally practised pastoralism, depending on seasonal migrations that aligned with rainfall patterns and the availability of pasture.
In the late 19th century, the area came under Egyptian and later Anglo-Egyptian administration as part of the Sudan Condominium (1899–1956). Missionaries introduced Christianity, Western education, and the English language, intensifying the cultural and religious divide between the Christian and animist south and the Muslim Arab north.
After Sudan’s independence in 1956, promises of southern political inclusion were broken, sparking the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972). The Addis Ababa Agreement temporarily granted autonomy to the south, but renewed tensions in 1983 led to the Second Sudanese Civil War, spearheaded by the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The war claimed over two million lives and caused mass displacement.
The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2005 ended hostilities, introducing a six-year transition towards self-rule. A referendum in January 2011 saw an overwhelming 98% vote for secession, leading to South Sudan’s independence later that year. However, internal divisions and weak state structures soon emerged as significant challenges for the nascent state.

Post-Independence Political Developments

South Sudan’s independence was marked by optimism but quickly followed by political fragmentation. In December 2013, a power struggle between President Salva Kiir, of the Dinka ethnic group, and Vice President Riek Machar, a Nuer, escalated into a civil war that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and displaced millions.
A 2015 peace accord collapsed after renewed fighting in 2016, but the Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS), signed in 2018, established a framework for peace. A Transitional Government of National Unity (TGoNU) was formed in 2020, reinstating Machar as First Vice President. However, implementation has been hampered by disputes over security reforms, power-sharing, and constitutional development. Elections are currently scheduled for December 2026.
Intercommunal violence, food shortages, and economic collapse have deepened the crisis, with an estimated 7 million people—more than half the population—dependent on humanitarian aid.

Geography and Environment

Covering 644,329 square kilometres, South Sudan is slightly smaller than Texas. The landscape consists largely of flat plains and swampy lowlands, with highlands in the south bordering Uganda and Kenya. The White Nile River, running from south to north, is the country’s most significant waterway, sustaining agriculture and transport.
A defining geographical feature is The Sudd, one of the world’s largest wetlands, which expands up to 100,000 square kilometres during the rainy season. It provides rich biodiversity and grazing grounds but poses obstacles to transport and development. The climate is tropical, with a distinct rainy season (May–October) and dry season (November–April). The region’s resources include petroleum, iron ore, gold, copper, and fertile farmland, though environmental degradation from deforestation, oil pollution, and overgrazing is a growing concern.

Population and Society

South Sudan’s population, estimated at 12.7 million (2024), encompasses more than 60 ethnic groups, with the Dinka (35–40%) and Nuer (15%) being predominant. Other notable groups include the Shilluk, Azande, Bari, and Murle. The official language is English, although Arabic dialects and numerous indigenous languages are commonly spoken. Religiously, around 60% are Christians, 33% adhere to traditional beliefs, and 6% are Muslims.
The demographic structure is overwhelmingly young, with a median age of 18.7 years and 42% under 15. The fertility rate stands at 5.1 births per woman, while life expectancy is about 60 years. Health indicators remain poor, with maternal mortality at 692 per 100,000 births and infant mortality at 60 per 1,000 live births. Access to clean drinking water reaches only 41% of the population.
Urbanisation is limited—79% of the population lives in rural areas—and the main cities include Juba, Wau, and Malakal. Internal displacement affects 1.3 million people, while over 500,000 refugees have sought shelter in neighbouring states.

Government and Political Structure

South Sudan operates as a presidential republic, with a bicameral National Legislature composed of the Transitional National Legislative Assembly (550 members) and the Council of States (100 members). The President, currently Salva Kiir Mayardit, holds extensive executive powers as both head of state and government.
The 2011 Transitional Constitution functions as the nation’s supreme legal framework, pending revision under the peace process. The country is administratively divided into 10 states and three special administrative areas (Abyei, Pibor, and Ruweng). The judiciary, led by the Supreme Court, operates alongside customary courts, though judicial independence remains limited. Women’s representation in parliament stands at approximately 32%, reflecting constitutional gender quotas but challenged by sociocultural barriers.

Economy

South Sudan’s economy is oil-dependent, with petroleum contributing over 90% of state revenue and around half of GDP. The 2023 GDP was valued at US$4.63 billion, but growth remains volatile due to ongoing conflict, infrastructure deficits, and fluctuating oil prices. Proven oil reserves total approximately 3.75 billion barrels, mainly in Unity and Upper Nile states, with exports routed through Sudan to Port Sudan on the Red Sea.
Outside oil, the economy relies on subsistence agriculture, employing roughly 80% of the workforce. Staple crops include sorghum, maize, cassava, sesame, and groundnuts, though production is hindered by poor irrigation and insecurity. Inflation reached 91% in 2024, and the South Sudanese pound (SSP) has depreciated sharply. Over 82% of citizens live below the poverty line, and food insecurity affects more than half the population.
South Sudan’s primary export partners include China (51%), Singapore (29%), and the United Arab Emirates (10%). Imports come mainly from Uganda, Kenya, China, and the UAE. Infrastructure development is minimal, with electricity coverage at only 8.4% and roads often impassable during the rainy season.

Defence and Security

The South Sudan People’s Defence Force (SSPDF), formerly the SPLA, serves as the national military, encompassing land, air, and riverine units with an estimated strength of 150,000–200,000 personnel. The country has been under a UN arms embargo since 2018, and current efforts aim to integrate rival militias into Necessary Unified Forces (NUF).
Two major UN peacekeeping missions operate within South Sudan: the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), with about 18,000 personnel, and the UN Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA), deployed along the disputed border with Sudan. Despite these measures, security conditions remain fragile due to local conflicts, cattle raiding, and cross-border tensions. The 2023 war in Sudan has worsened instability and triggered additional refugee inflows.

Society, Culture, and National Identity

The national flag of South Sudan features black, red, and green bands divided by white stripes, with a gold star on a blue triangle, symbolising the people, blood shed for freedom, the land, the Nile, and unity respectively. The national anthem, “South Sudan Oyee!”, commemorates the country’s struggle for independence.