Somalia

Somalia, officially known as the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a nation located on the Horn of Africa, bordered by Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti, with an extensive coastline along the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. The country’s strategic position, commanding access to key maritime routes connecting the Indian Ocean to the Suez Canal, has historically made it a major centre of trade, culture, and geopolitical significance. Although Somalia has endured decades of political instability and conflict, it continues to play a crucial role in the regional dynamics of East Africa.

Historical Background

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, Arab and Persian merchants established prosperous trading posts along the Somali coast, integrating the region into the wider Indian Ocean trading system. The introduction of Islam during this period profoundly shaped Somali culture, language, and political organisation.
By the late 19th century, the European colonial partition of Africa brought the Somali territories under different administrations. Britain governed the northern region as British Somaliland, while Italy administered the south as Italian Somaliland. In 1960, both territories achieved independence—British Somaliland on 26 June and Italian Somaliland five days later—and united to form the Republic of Somalia.
The early post-independence years were characterised by parliamentary democracy until a military coup in 1969, led by General Mohamed Siad Barre, established a socialist-oriented regime aligned with the Soviet Union. Barre’s government sought to diminish clan influence through centralised governance and ideological reform known as “scientific socialism.”
However, mounting opposition in the 1980s led to civil war and the collapse of the Somali state in 1991. The fall of the Barre regime resulted in widespread conflict among rival militias, humanitarian catastrophe, and foreign intervention, including UNOSOM missions and Operation Restore Hope (1992–1993). The mission’s failure, symbolised by the Black Hawk Down incident, led to the withdrawal of international forces by 1995.
During the 2000s, attempts to rebuild national governance produced a series of transitional governments. The Islamic Courts Union (ICU) briefly stabilised parts of the country in 2006 before being displaced by Ethiopian forces, leading to the rise of al-Shabaab, a militant Islamist organisation. The Federal Government of Somalia (FGS), established in 2012 under a provisional constitution, became the first internationally recognised central government since 1991. Despite progress, the state remains fragmented among federal entities, autonomous regions, and insurgent-held territories.

Geography and Environment

Somalia covers approximately 637,657 square kilometres, featuring mostly flat plateaus and low hills, with the highest point being Mount Shimbiris (2,460 m) in the north. The climate is arid to semi-arid, governed by northeast and southwest monsoons, resulting in irregular rainfall and frequent droughts. Environmental degradation—such as deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification—remains acute, driven by overgrazing and unsustainable land use.
The nation’s 3,000 km coastline, one of Africa’s longest, provides significant potential for fisheries and maritime trade. Somalia also possesses untapped reserves of iron ore, uranium, and hydrocarbons, although insecurity hampers exploration. Around 70% of land is used for pastoralism, a dominant livelihood system involving camels, goats, and cattle.
Environmental challenges are exacerbated by poor water resource management; only 58% of citizens have access to safe drinking water. Somalia participates in several international environmental agreements, including the Paris Climate Accord and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, to address these pressing concerns.

Population and Society

Somalia’s estimated population of 13 million (2024) is overwhelmingly ethnically Somali, with small minorities of Arabs and Bantus. The official languages are Somali and Arabic, while English and Italian are used in administration and education. Islam, specifically Sunni Islam, dominates religious and social life, deeply influencing the legal system based on sharia.
The median age is about 19 years, with over 40% of Somalis under 15, making it one of the world’s youngest populations. Life expectancy stands at 56.5 years, constrained by limited healthcare and chronic malnutrition. The maternal mortality rate is 563 per 100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate remains among the world’s highest.
Urbanisation has grown rapidly; about 48% of Somalis live in cities such as Mogadishu, the capital, and Hargeisa, the principal city of Somaliland. Yet, rural poverty and internal displacement persist—over 3.8 million people remain internally displaced due to drought and conflict. Literacy is approximately 54%, with marked gender disparity.
Despite these hardships, the clan system continues to serve as a foundation of social identity and governance. Additionally, diaspora remittances—representing 15–17% of GDP—play a vital role in sustaining household incomes and supporting reconstruction.

Government and Politics

Somalia operates as a federal parliamentary republic under a provisional constitution adopted in 2012. The Federal Parliament comprises two chambers: the House of the People (275 members) and the Upper House (54 members). The President, elected by Parliament for a four-year term, serves as head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government.
In May 2022, Hassan Sheikh Mohamud was re-elected as President, with Hamza Abdi Barre as Prime Minister. The federal system recognises regional states including Puntland, Jubaland, Galmudug, Hirshabelle, and South West State, alongside Somaliland, which functions as a self-declared independent republic.
Somalia’s legal framework integrates civil law, Islamic law, and customary Xeer law, reflecting the nation’s pluralistic heritage. While efforts to enhance judicial integrity and electoral reform continue, corruption, insecurity, and institutional weakness remain significant obstacles. Women’s representation in politics has improved, with 20–26% of parliamentary seats reserved for women through gender quotas.

Economy

Somalia’s economy, estimated at $12.1 billion (2024), has shown gradual recovery with 4% real GDP growth driven by agriculture, trade, telecommunications, and diaspora remittances. Nonetheless, per capita GDP ($1,400) ranks among the lowest globally.
Agriculture and livestock dominate the economy, employing about 70% of the workforce. Key exports include sheep, goats, cattle, camel milk, and sorghum, with major trading partners being the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Imports such as sugar, rice, tobacco, and machinery mainly come from China, India, and Turkey.
The informal economy remains extensive, supported by remittances exceeding $2 billion annually. Somalia’s telecommunications sector is a notable success, with widespread mobile money use and competitive digital services. Although the tax base is limited (less than 1% of GDP), international debt relief under the HIPC Initiative has facilitated fiscal reforms.
Unemployment is around 19%, with youth unemployment exceeding 33%. Poverty affects more than half the population, compounded by recurring droughts and inflationary pressures.

Infrastructure, Energy, and Communications

Only 49% of Somalis have access to electricity, mostly from private diesel generators or solar microgrids. Fossil fuels dominate energy production, though renewable sources (notably solar) are expanding. Somalia possesses 5.6 billion cubic metres of natural gas reserves, yet they remain undeveloped.
The telecommunications industry has grown rapidly, with 8.8 million mobile subscribers and internet penetration at 28%. Mobile banking is widely used, making Somalia one of Africa’s most digitally connected low-income nations.
The country’s transport network includes six major ports—Mogadishu, Berbera, Boosaaso, Kismaayo, Marka, and Baraawe—and approximately 40 airports, supporting both domestic and international connectivity.

Defence and Security

The Somali National Army (SNA), comprising around 20,000 personnel, forms the backbone of national defence, supported by the Navy, Air Force, and National Police. Somalia’s security architecture is reinforced by African Union operations, including AMISOM, ATMIS, and the current AUSSOM (2025), with training assistance from Turkey and the United States.
The SNA faces persistent threats from al-Shabaab, which controls parts of southern and central Somalia, and a smaller Islamic State–Somalia faction in the north. Local militias and regional security forces, such as those in Puntland and Somaliland, further complicate national security coordination.

National Identity and Culture

Somalia’s national identity is deeply anchored in Islam, clan affiliation, and nomadic tradition. The national flag—a light blue field with a white five-pointed star—represents Somali unity across the five historical regions inhabited by ethnic Somalis. The national anthem, “Qolobaa Calankeed” (“Every Nation Has Its Own Flag”), and the leopard serve as national emblems.
Cultural life is enriched by oral poetry, storytelling, and music, which serve as vehicles for history and social values. Somali society prizes hospitality, kinship, and resilience, and despite decades of turmoil, the people maintain a strong sense of collective identity.