Module 12. Society, Economy, and Culture (600–1000 AD)

The period between 600 and 1000 AD in Indian history represents a transitional phase from the ancient to the early medieval era. Following the decline of Harsha’s empire, the Indian subcontinent witnessed political fragmentation, regionalisation, and the consolidation of feudal socio-economic structures. This age saw significant developments in society, agrarian economy, religion, art, and culture. The era, often characterised by the rise of regional polities, also witnessed the diversification of languages, local traditions, and temple-centred economies, shaping the trajectory of medieval Indian civilisation.

Structure of Society

Indian society during 600–1000 AD was predominantly rural and hierarchical. The varna and jati system continued to dominate social organisation, with increasing rigidity and localisation. The emergence of new ruling elites and landholding groups reshaped social structures and introduced a complex interplay between political power and caste hierarchy.
1. Varna and Caste Dynamics: The four-fold varna system of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras persisted, but within it, numerous jatis (sub-castes) emerged based on occupation and regional divisions. This proliferation of castes reflected both the growing specialisation of labour and the integration of tribal and local groups into the Brahmanical social order. The Brahmins retained a pre-eminent position due to their control over religious and educational functions, while the Kshatriyas emerged as rulers and warriors in newly established regional kingdoms.
2. Emergence of Feudal Classes: The social hierarchy also came to include samantas (feudal lords), mahattaras, village headmen, and intermediate landlords. Land grants to Brahmins (brahmadeya) and temples (devadana) created new landed elites who wielded both economic and judicial authority. These developments reinforced social stratification and decentralised power.
3. Position of Women: The status of women generally declined compared with earlier periods. Early medieval texts and inscriptions indicate a patriarchal social order where women’s roles were largely confined to domestic spheres. Practices like child marriage, purdah (in certain regions), and sati began to appear more frequently, though elite women occasionally exercised power as regents or patrons. Learned women such as Andal in Tamil Nadu and Vijjaka, a poetess in the Rashtrakuta court, show that education and artistic participation were not entirely denied to women.
4. Tribal and Regional Societies: Tribal groups in central and eastern India were gradually assimilated into mainstream society through the spread of agriculture and religion. Many tribal chiefs were converted into local rulers or landlords through the process of Brahmanisation, wherein they adopted Brahmanical rituals to gain social legitimacy.

Agrarian Economy and Land Relations

The economy between 600 and 1000 AD was predominantly agrarian, with the expansion of cultivation marking a crucial feature of this period. The transition from a commercial-urban economy to a rural-agrarian economy defined the early medieval economic structure.
1. Expansion of Agriculture: Large tracts of forests were cleared for cultivation, especially in the Ganga valley, Deccan, and eastern India. The introduction of new settlements, often through royal and temple patronage, facilitated this expansion. The growth of irrigation systems, including tanks and canals in the south and wells in the north, contributed to agricultural productivity.
2. Land Grants and Feudalisation: The widespread practice of land grants to Brahmins, officials, and temples transformed land relations. These grants, often tax-free and hereditary, led to the rise of a feudal economy in which local landlords exercised control over peasants and collected revenue in kind or labour. The samanta system exemplified this structure, where subordinates owed allegiance and military service to higher rulers.
3. Decline of Urban Centres: Compared with the Gupta era, there was a marked decline in urbanisation. Many cities shrank in size or disappeared as trade routes shifted and agrarian economies took precedence. Administrative and temple towns replaced earlier commercial hubs.
4. Peasantry and Labour: The peasantry formed the backbone of the economy but bore the burden of taxation and labour obligations. Inscriptions mention terms like vishti (forced labour), indicating the subordination of peasants. Artisans and craftsmen, though still important, increasingly became part of village-based production rather than independent urban guilds.

Trade, Commerce, and Currency

Despite a decline in inland commerce, maritime trade flourished during this period, particularly in southern and western India. Ports such as Tamralipti, Sopara, Kaveripattinam, and Nagapattinam were active centres of trade connecting India with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Arabia, and China.
1. Inland and Foreign Trade: Inland trade routes connected agrarian regions with urban markets and ports. The export of textiles, spices, pearls, and ivory, along with the import of horses, silk, and precious metals, was common. South Indian kingdoms like the Cholas, Pallavas, and Cheras maintained robust maritime networks.
2. Guilds and Merchants: Trade was organised by merchant guilds such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole-500, and Nanadesis, particularly in the south. These guilds not only conducted commerce but also held social and political influence, often sponsoring temples and public works.
3. Currency System: The use of coins continued but with reduced standardisation. Gold coins became rare, and copper and silver currencies were more common. Barter transactions were widespread in rural areas due to limited monetisation of the economy.

Religion and Philosophy

Religious life during 600–1000 AD was marked by diversity, synthesis, and regionalisation. While Brahmanism reasserted its dominance, Buddhism and Jainism remained influential, and Bhakti movements began to emerge as popular religious expressions.
1. Brahmanical Revival: The Puranic form of Hinduism gained prominence, centring on the worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti. The construction of temples and ritual ceremonies reinforced Brahmanical authority. The system of bhakti (devotion) emphasised personal piety over ritual formalism.
2. Buddhism and Jainism: Buddhism remained strong in eastern India under the Pala dynasty, which supported Mahayana monasteries such as Nalanda and Vikramashila. Jainism prospered in western and southern India under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas, contributing to art and literature.
3. The Bhakti Tradition: The Alvar and Nayanar saints in Tamil Nadu pioneered devotional movements centred on Vishnu and Shiva respectively. Their vernacular hymns, composed in Tamil, played a crucial role in integrating spiritual devotion with regional identity and language.

Art, Architecture, and Literature

This period saw the flowering of temple architecture, regional artistic schools, and literary activity in both Sanskrit and vernacular languages.
1. Architecture: Temple construction reached new heights in both north and south India.

• In northern India, the Nagara style developed, represented by the temples of Khajuraho and Osian.
• In the Deccan and Karnataka, the Vesara style blended northern and southern elements, seen in Pattadakal and Ellora.
• In the south, the Dravida style of the Pallavas and later Cholas produced monumental temples at Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram, and Thanjavur.

2. Sculpture and Painting: Sculpture became more elaborate and ornate, depicting deities, celestial beings, and mythological scenes. The Ellora caves (Kailasa Temple) and the Chalukyan temples at Badami showcase the technical mastery of artisans. Wall paintings in Ajanta and later in Tanjore reflect religious and courtly themes.
3. Literature and Learning: Sanskrit continued as the language of learning and royal patronage. Important works include Banabhatta’s Harshacharita, Vakpati’s Gaudavaho, and Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga (Kannada). Regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Bengali began to emerge as literary mediums. The Puranas, Dharmashastras, and commentaries on philosophy were widely produced.

Cultural Syncretism and Regionalisation

The period saw the evolution of distinct regional cultures through the blending of local traditions with pan-Indian elements. The temple became the nucleus of socio-economic and cultural life, serving as a centre for administration, education, and art. The rise of vernacular languages, regional art forms, and devotional literature signalled the localisation of Indian culture.