Serbia

Serbia, a landlocked nation in the Balkans of Southeastern Europe, lies at the meeting point of Central and Eastern Europe. The country’s history encompasses medieval kingdoms, centuries under Ottoman and Habsburg influence, and its central role in the rise and dissolution of Yugoslavia. Modern Serbia combines a deep cultural heritage and strategic geography with aspirations for European Union (EU) membership and reconciliation across a region long marked by political and ethnic conflict.

Historical Background

The modern Serbian state traces its lineage to the medieval Kingdom of Serbia, which flourished under the Nemanjić dynasty in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries before falling under Ottoman rule in 1459. During the nineteenth century, successive uprisings (1804–1817) secured Serbia’s autonomy, followed by full independence recognised by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
After the First World War, Serbia became the dominant constituent of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (1918), renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. The Second World War brought occupation and resistance, with the communist Partisans under Josip Broz Tito emerging victorious in 1945. They established the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), composed of six republics and two autonomous provinces. Tito’s policy of non-alignment positioned Yugoslavia between the Western and Soviet blocs and fostered decades of relative unity.
Tito’s death in 1980 ushered in political fragmentation. In 1989, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia, espousing nationalism and centralisation. His dominance in Belgrade fuelled conflict across the federation as republics sought independence. Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared sovereignty in 1991, followed by Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), but regional wars and ethnic violence in Croatia, Bosnia, and later Kosovo drew international sanctions and condemnation.
The Dayton Peace Agreement of 1995 ended the Bosnian war but left deep divisions. In 1998–99, conflict erupted in Kosovo between Serbian forces and ethnic Albanian insurgents, culminating in NATO air strikes and the withdrawal of Serbian troops. Kosovo was placed under United Nations administration.
Reform movements in 2000 brought down Milošević’s regime, initiating democratisation and economic liberalisation. The FRY was replaced by the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006), which dissolved peacefully when Montenegro voted for independence in 2006, leaving Serbia a sovereign state. Kosovo’s unilateral declaration of independence in 2008, recognised by most Western nations but rejected by Serbia, remains the country’s central foreign policy dispute.
Since 2013, EU-mediated negotiations have sought to normalise Serbia–Kosovo relations under the Brussels Agreement framework. Serbia became an official EU candidate in 2012. Aleksandar Vučić, serving as president since 2017, continues to pursue EU accession while balancing relations with Russia and China.

Geography and Environment

Serbia spans 77,474 square kilometres, bordered by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Romania. Although landlocked, it occupies a strategic transport and trade corridor linking Western Europe with the Near East through the Danube River, one of Europe’s major inland waterways.
The landscape varies from the fertile Pannonian Plain in the north to the Dinaric Alps and Carpathian–Balkan mountains in the south and east. The highest peak, Midžor, rises to 2,169 metres. Serbia’s average elevation is 442 metres, and the terrain supports both intensive agriculture and mineral extraction.
The climate is continental, with cold winters and warm, humid summers. Natural resources include lignite coal, copper, gold, iron ore, zinc, and arable land. Forests cover about 32% of the territory, while 41% is agricultural land. Serbia faces environmental challenges from air and water pollution, deforestation, and coal-based energy dependency. In 2023, it emitted approximately 44.8 million tonnes of CO₂, a figure reflecting the dominance of fossil fuels. Serbia participates in major global environmental accords, including the Paris Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Population and Society

The 2024 population stood at approximately 6.65 million, declining due to emigration and low fertility (1.46 children per woman). The median age is 43.9 years, among the highest in Europe, and population growth is negative (-0.61%). Urbanisation reaches 57%, with major cities including Belgrade (1.4 million), Novi Sad, Niš, and Kragujevac.
Ethnic Serbs constitute about 83% of the population. Minority communities include Hungarians (3.5%), Bosniaks, Roma, and others, with multiple official languages recognised in the autonomous province of Vojvodina. Serbian, written in both Cyrillic and Latin scripts, is the official national language.
Religion remains a cultural cornerstone: 84.6% of citizens identify as Orthodox Christian, 5% as Roman Catholic, and 3.1% as Muslim. Life expectancy averages 75.3 years (male 72.8; female 77.9). Health expenditure amounts to 10% of GDP, supporting 3.1 physicians and 5.4 hospital beds per 1,000 inhabitants. Literacy exceeds 99%, and education is compulsory from ages 6 to 15, with tertiary enrolment expanding steadily.
Social challenges include regional inequality, youth emigration, and rural depopulation. About 20% of the population lives below the national poverty line. Lifestyle risk factors—especially tobacco use (36%) and obesity (21.5%)—contribute to the health burden.

Government and Politics

Serbia is a parliamentary republic established by the Constitution of 2006, which upholds democratic governance, human rights, and national sovereignty. The President serves as head of state and represents Serbia internationally, while the Prime Minister leads the executive branch.
As of 2025, Aleksandar Vučić is president and Djuro Macut prime minister. The National Assembly (Narodna Skupština) consists of 250 members elected by proportional representation for four-year terms. The December 2023 elections gave Vučić’s Serbia Must Not Stop coalition a parliamentary majority of 129 seats.
The judiciary follows a civil law tradition, headed by the Supreme Court of Cassation and the Constitutional Court. The country is divided administratively into 117 municipalities and 28 cities, including Belgrade, which holds special status as the capital. Vojvodina, the northern autonomous province, has its own assembly and limited executive powers.
The national flag features horizontal red, blue, and white stripes with the Serbian coat of arms—symbolising historical continuity and Slavic unity. The national anthem, “Bože pravde” (“God of Justice”), dates from 1904.

Economy

Serbia’s economy, classified as upper middle-income, demonstrates steady growth and structural diversification. In 2024, GDP (PPP) reached $177 billion, expanding at 3.9% annually, with per capita output at $26,900. Inflation eased to 4.7%, following pandemic-era pressures.
The economy is service-led (58.5%), supported by manufacturing (23%) and agriculture (3%). Major sectors include automotive components, metals, food processing, chemicals, and ICT. Export value reached $44.4 billion in 2023, led by insulated wire, copper, and electric motors, while imports totalled $48.2 billion, primarily energy and consumer goods. Germany, Hungary, and Italy are key trade partners.
Foreign reserves were estimated at $30.5 billion in 2024, maintaining stability for the Serbian dinar (RSD) at roughly 108 per US dollar. Public debt is moderate, and unemployment fell to 7.4%, though youth unemployment (22.7%) remains high. Remittances—equivalent to 7% of GDP—constitute an important household income source. Economic reforms emphasise renewable energy investment, transport modernisation, and digital innovation.

Energy and Infrastructure

Electricity coverage is universal. Installed generating capacity totals 8.2 million kW, primarily coal-fired (65%) with hydropower contributing 30%. Renewable energy—solar, wind, and biomass—is gradually expanding. The Trans-Balkan Electricity Corridor project aims to enhance regional energy connectivity and efficiency.
Serbia’s coal reserves (7.1 billion tonnes) underpin its energy security but pose environmental challenges. Policy goals prioritise diversification and reduced import dependence, especially following geopolitical tensions affecting Russian gas supply.
Transport infrastructure includes 46 airports, 3,333 kilometres of railways, and an expanding motorway system linking Belgrade to regional capitals. The Danube remains vital for river transport and trade. Telecommunications are advanced, with over 8.5 million mobile subscriptions, 85% internet penetration, and an emerging digital economy centred on Belgrade.

Defence and Security

The Serbian Armed Forces (Vojska Srbije) comprise Land Forces, Air and Air Defence, and the Serbian Guard, totalling around 25,000 active personnel. Defence spending is 2.5% of GDP. Conscription ended in 2011; service is voluntary for citizens over 18.
Serbia maintains peacekeeping deployments under the UN and participates in the NATO Partnership for Peace while upholding military neutrality. Defence cooperation extends to Russia and China, particularly in training and equipment modernisation. Security concerns centre on border control, terrorism prevention, cyber threats, and the unresolved status of Kosovo.

Culture and National Identity

Serbia’s culture reflects centuries of interaction among Slavic, Byzantine, Ottoman, and Central European traditions. Its Orthodox monasteries, such as Studenica and Sopoćani, are UNESCO World Heritage Sites renowned for mediaeval frescoes and architecture. Folk music, dance (kolo), and national epics remain central to cultural identity.