Module 01. Prehistoric India

Prehistoric India refers to the vast period of human existence in the Indian subcontinent before the advent of written records. This era encompasses the earliest traces of human habitation, spanning from the Palaeolithic age to the onset of the Iron Age. The study of prehistoric India relies on archaeological discoveries, including tools, rock art, and fossils, which provide insight into the cultural and technological evolution of early humans.

The Stone Age in India

The Stone Age in India is divided into three main phases — the Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age) — based on technological development and lifestyle.

• Palaeolithic Period (c. 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE): This was the earliest phase of human activity in India, characterised by the use of crude stone tools. Archaeological sites such as Soan Valley (Punjab), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), and Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) provide evidence of early hominins. The tools were primarily hand axes, cleavers, and choppers made from quartzite. Humans during this period were hunter-gatherers who lived in caves and rock shelters.
• Mesolithic Period (c. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE): The Mesolithic period witnessed the use of smaller and more refined tools called microliths. Sites like Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), and Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) illustrate a gradual shift towards a semi-sedentary lifestyle. People began to domesticate animals and engage in primitive forms of agriculture. Cave paintings at Bhimbetka depict hunting scenes, animals, and community life, reflecting early artistic expression.
• Neolithic Period (c. 6,000 BCE – 2,000 BCE): The Neolithic Age marked a significant transformation with the introduction of agriculture, domestication of animals, and the establishment of permanent settlements. Important Neolithic sites include Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), and Mehrgarh (in present-day Pakistan). People used polished stone tools, made pottery, and constructed mud-brick houses. This period laid the foundation for the emergence of early village communities.

Chalcolithic Cultures

The Chalcolithic Age (c. 2,000 BCE – 700 BCE) represented a transitional phase between the Neolithic and the Iron Age, defined by the use of both stone and copper tools. Settlements of this period have been discovered in Maharashtra (Jorwe and Daimabad), Rajasthan (Ahar), and Madhya Pradesh (Navdatoli). People practised agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade. The presence of painted pottery and copper artefacts signifies growing artistic and metallurgical skills. Burials with grave goods suggest belief in life after death.

The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE), although belonging to the Bronze Age, marks the culmination of prehistoric cultural evolution in India. This civilisation, spread across present-day Pakistan and north-western India, demonstrated remarkable advancements in urban planning, architecture, and trade. Cities such as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal exhibited grid-based layouts, drainage systems, and standardised weights and measures. Agricultural prosperity, craft specialisation, and trade with Mesopotamia marked the zenith of prehistoric development before the advent of the Vedic Age.

Rock Art and Cultural Expression

Prehistoric India is renowned for its rock art and cave paintings, which serve as invaluable sources of information about early human life. Sites such as Bhimbetka and Kupgallu Hill in Karnataka display depictions of animals, hunting scenes, and daily life. The paintings, made with natural pigments, reveal the early human sense of creativity and symbolic thought. These artworks not only represent aesthetic expression but also provide insight into the cultural and spiritual life of prehistoric communities.

Environment and Lifestyle

The prehistoric inhabitants of India adapted to diverse environmental conditions — from the fertile river valleys of the Ganga and Indus to the arid plateaus of the Deccan. Initially nomadic, they gradually adopted sedentary lifestyles with the development of agriculture. They cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, and rice, and domesticated animals including cattle, sheep, and goats. The use of fire, pottery-making, and the invention of the wheel significantly enhanced their living conditions.

Tools and Technology

Tool-making evolved dramatically across prehistoric phases.

• Palaeolithic tools were made by flaking large stones to form hand axes and cleavers.
• Mesolithic microliths were crafted with precision and often hafted onto wooden handles for greater efficiency.
• Neolithic tools were polished for durability and used for farming and construction.
• The Chalcolithic period introduced copper tools, marking the first step towards metallurgy.

These innovations reflect the gradual intellectual and technical advancement of early human societies.

Regional Variations

Prehistoric cultures in India exhibited regional diversity:

• The North-western region (including present-day Pakistan) developed early agricultural communities such as Mehrgarh.
• The Central Indian plateau showed extensive evidence of Mesolithic habitation and rock art.
• The Southern region (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu) revealed Neolithic and Megalithic traditions, including dolmens and cairn burials.
• The Eastern region, especially Odisha and Bihar, presented a blend of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures.

These regional differences underline the complex and multi-layered development of human civilisation in the subcontinent.

The Megalithic Tradition

The Megalithic culture (c. 1,200 BCE – 300 BCE) followed the Chalcolithic phase and was characterised by the practice of erecting large stone monuments, often over graves. Sites in South India, such as Brahmagiri, Adichanallur, and Maski, have yielded evidence of iron tools, black-and-red ware pottery, and urn burials. This period represents the early use of iron in India and the transition towards more complex social and political formations.

Significance of Prehistoric Studies

The study of prehistoric India offers crucial insights into the origins of Indian civilisation. It helps trace the evolution of human adaptation, social organisation, and technological innovation in the subcontinent. Through systematic archaeological excavation, radiocarbon dating, and interdisciplinary research, scholars have been able to reconstruct a detailed picture of India’s early human history.