Module 11. Post Harsha Dynasties and Polities (600-1000AD)

The period following the death of Emperor Harsha in 647 AD marked a phase of political fragmentation and regional consolidation in early medieval India. With the decline of Harsha’s empire, northern India saw the emergence of numerous regional dynasties competing for supremacy. This period, stretching roughly from 600 to 1000 AD, was characterised by a decentralised political structure, increasing regionalisation of culture and administration, and the rise of powerful states in various parts of the subcontinent.

Background and Political Context

After Harsha’s death, his empire disintegrated rapidly due to the absence of a strong successor and the lack of a unified administrative framework. Northern India, which had been under Harsha’s central authority, was soon divided among several regional powers. The period is often termed as the Age of Regional Kingdoms or Early Medieval Period in Indian history. Unlike the Mauryan or Gupta eras, no single empire managed to exercise pan-Indian authority.
This age also witnessed the gradual decline of urban centres, the rise of agrarian economies, and the growing importance of feudal land relations. Political authority was often decentralised, with local chieftains and feudatories assuming significant roles under nominal overlordship. The period also marked the proliferation of temple-building activities, religious patronage, and the emergence of regional languages and literatures.

Northern India: Successor States and Dynasties

In northern India, three major political powers—the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Rashtrakutas—emerged as dominant rivals. Together, they participated in what is historically known as the Tripartite Struggle for control over the strategic city of Kannauj.
1. Gurjara-Pratiharas (8th–11th Century AD): The Gurjara-Pratiharas rose in western India, initially controlling parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat before expanding eastward. Their capital was eventually established at Kannauj under King Nagabhata I and later under Mihira Bhoja (836–885 AD), who was among the most powerful rulers of his line. The Pratiharas acted as defenders of northern India against Arab invasions from Sindh and maintained control over trade routes connecting north and west India. They played a crucial role in fostering art, architecture, and Sanskrit learning.
2. The Palas (8th–12th Century AD): The Pala dynasty emerged in Bengal under Gopala (c. 750 AD), who was elected by local chieftains to end political disorder. His successors, notably Dharmapala (775–810 AD) and Devapala (810–850 AD), expanded their dominion over eastern India and parts of Bihar and Assam. The Palas were ardent patrons of Mahayana Buddhism, establishing universities at Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Odantapuri, which became renowned centres of learning in Asia. Their maritime trade links with Southeast Asia enriched the Bengal delta economically and culturally.
3. The Rashtrakutas (8th–10th Century AD): Originating from the Deccan, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (modern Karnataka) rose under Dantidurga (c. 735 AD) and reached their zenith under Govinda III (793–814 AD) and Amoghavarsha I (814–880 AD). They were powerful rivals to both the Pratiharas and the Palas in the struggle for Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas are celebrated for their patronage of literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and for their monumental rock-cut architecture, particularly the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, an unparalleled achievement in Indian art.

Regional Powers in South and Western India

In southern India, the post-Harsha period was marked by the rise of strong regional states such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and later the Cholas.
1. The Pallavas (4th–9th Century AD): Centred at Kanchipuram, the Pallavas reached their height under Mahendravarman I (600–630 AD) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD), who successfully resisted the Chalukyas and promoted Dravidian art and architecture. The shore temples of Mahabalipuram and the rock-cut shrines of Kanchipuram exemplify Pallava artistic excellence. They also played a pivotal role in transmitting Indian cultural influence to Southeast Asia.
2. The Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th Century AD): The early Chalukyas ruled from Badami in modern Karnataka. Under Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD), the Chalukyan empire stretched from the Narmada River to the southern peninsula. His reign saw diplomatic exchanges with the Persian Sassanian ruler Khusro II. The Chalukyan period witnessed notable architectural innovations, including the cave temples of Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami.
3. The Cholas (9th–13th Century AD): The imperial Cholas rose under Vijayalaya (c. 850 AD), expanding their dominion over the Tamil region. Under rulers like Rajaraja I (985–1014 AD) and Rajendra I (1014–1044 AD), they became one of the most powerful empires in South Asia. They excelled in maritime trade, naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and temple construction, including the Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur.

Eastern and Central Indian Kingdoms

In eastern India, apart from the Palas, the Somavamsis ruled Odisha, while the Chandellas dominated Bundelkhand in central India. The Chandella dynasty is renowned for the Khajuraho temples, built between the 9th and 11th centuries, known for their intricate sculpture and architectural brilliance.
In central India, the Kalachuris and Paramaras of Malwa were influential regional powers. The Paramara ruler Bhoja (1010–1055 AD) is remembered as a great patron of learning and culture.

The Tripartite Struggle

A defining political feature of this period was the Tripartite Struggle between the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas for the possession of Kannauj—a symbol of imperial sovereignty in northern India. Each dynasty, at different times, succeeded in capturing Kannauj, but none could retain it permanently. This protracted rivalry reflected the fragmented and competitive nature of Indian polity during the early medieval era.

Socio-Economic and Cultural Developments

The post-Harsha period witnessed significant agrarian expansion, with increasing forest clearance and settlement of new lands. The grant of land to temples, Brahmins, and officials contributed to the feudalisation of Indian society, wherein local landlords gained semi-autonomous powers.
Trade and commerce continued, though urban centres declined in comparison to the earlier Gupta age. Maritime trade, especially from southern ports, connected India with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Arab world.
Culturally, the period was marked by the flowering of regional art, literature, and temple architecture. Distinctive schools such as the Nagara (North Indian), Dravida (South Indian), and Vesara (Deccan) styles of temple architecture evolved. The rise of regional languages like Kannada, Tamil, and Bengali alongside Sanskrit indicated a broader cultural diversification.

Legacy and Significance

The era between 600 and 1000 AD laid the foundation for the emergence of strong regional polities that would later evolve into medieval kingdoms such as the Cholas, Chalukyas, and Rajputs. It also represented the transition of Indian society from ancient to medieval forms, with the consolidation of feudal institutions, localised cultures, and religious pluralism. The political fragmentation of this age did not signify decline but rather a reorganisation of political and cultural energies into vibrant regional forms that shaped the subcontinent’s medieval history.