Pakistan

Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a populous South Asian nation strategically positioned between India, Afghanistan, Iran, China, and the Arabian Sea. Its vast and varied landscape stretches from the towering Karakoram and Himalayan ranges in the north to the fertile Indus plains and the arid Balochistan Plateau in the south-west. The country’s historical roots extend deep into one of the world’s earliest civilisations, while its modern statehood was established in 1947 following the partition of British India. Pakistan today stands as a federal parliamentary republic with a predominantly Muslim identity, extensive linguistic and cultural diversity, and a complex socio-economic fabric.

Historical Background and State Formation

The territory of present-day Pakistan was once home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE), renowned for its urban sophistication and hydraulic systems at sites such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Over successive centuries, it witnessed Persian, Greek, Mauryan, Kushan, Arab, and Turkic influences. Islam was introduced during early Arab expeditions in the 8th century and became firmly entrenched under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, which dominated the subcontinent between the 16th and 18th centuries.
British expansion during the 19th century incorporated these territories into British India, leading to political and social transformations under colonial rule. The demand for a separate Muslim homeland—championed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the All-India Muslim League—culminated in Pakistan’s creation in August 1947. Initially comprising East and West Pakistan, the state experienced early wars with India (1947–48, 1965, and 1999) over the contested region of Jammu and Kashmir. Internal political rifts led to the secession of East Pakistan and the formation of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1998, Pakistan’s nuclear tests confirmed its status as a nuclear-armed power, reinforcing its security posture amid regional rivalries.
Civil–military dynamics have been a defining feature of Pakistan’s political evolution, marked by alternating phases of civilian governance and military rule. The country has also faced insurgent and extremist challenges, particularly from groups such as the Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and regional separatist movements.

Physical Geography and Environment

Pakistan spans 796,095 square kilometres, sharing land borders with India (3,190 km), Afghanistan (2,670 km), Iran (959 km), and China (438 km). It possesses a 1,046-km coastline along the Arabian Sea. The nation’s topography divides into three main zones:

• The Northern Highlands – encompassing the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalayan ranges, with K2 (8,611 m) as the world’s second-highest peak.
• The Indus Plain – a vast, irrigated lowland central to agriculture and population concentration.
• The Balochistan Plateau – arid and rugged, rich in minerals and energy resources.

Pakistan’s climatic diversity ranges from tropical desert to alpine conditions, with severe monsoon flooding in the Indus Basin and frequent seismic activity along western fault lines. Major environmental challenges include deforestation, air pollution, soil degradation, and water scarcity. The Indus Basin aquifer supplies most freshwater, while renewable water resources are estimated at 246.8 billion cubic metres.

Demography and Human Development

With a population exceeding 252 million (2024), Pakistan ranks fifth globally. Its demographic profile is youth-heavy, with a median age of 22.9 years and over one-third under 15. The fertility rate remains high at 3.32 children per woman, and life expectancy averages 70.3 years. Urbanisation, at 38%, continues to rise, driven by migration to major cities such as Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad.
Ethnic diversity characterises Pakistani society, comprising Punjabis (44.7%), Pashtuns (15.4%), Sindhis (14.1%), Saraikis (8.4%), Muhajirs (7.6%), and Baloch (3.6%). Urdu serves as the national language and administrative medium, while English functions as an official language. Islam constitutes 96.5% of the population, predominantly Sunni with a significant Shia minority.
Education remains a developmental challenge: literacy rates hover near 59%, with notable gender disparities. Education spending accounts for 1.9% of GDP, while healthcare expenditure stands at 2.9%. Access to improved drinking water is 90.6%, though rural sanitation remains uneven.

Political System and Institutions

Pakistan operates as a federal parliamentary republic under the 1973 Constitution, periodically suspended and restored during political crises. The President acts as head of state, while the Prime Minister heads the government. The bicameral Parliament consists of the National Assembly (336 seats) and the Senate (96 seats).
The judiciary is anchored by the Supreme Court, with High Courts in each province. The federation comprises four provinces—Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan—alongside Azad Kashmir, Gilgit–Baltistan, and the Islamabad Capital Territory. As of 2024, Asif Ali Zardari serves as President and Shehbaz Sharif as Prime Minister.
Pakistan’s political landscape is competitive, with major parties including the Pakistan Muslim League (N), Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI). Civil–military relations remain a sensitive axis in governance.

Economy and Development

Pakistan’s economy, valued at $373 billion (2024), is classified as lower-middle income. GDP composition comprises agriculture (23.5%), industry (20%), and services (50.5%). Inflation moderated to 12.6% in 2024, and real GDP growth reached 3.2%.
Agriculture remains central, producing wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, and maize, alongside livestock and dairy. The industrial base is led by textiles and garments, supported by pharmaceuticals, cement, fertiliser, and surgical instruments. Exports total about $40.2 billion, dominated by textiles and rice, while imports—primarily energy and machinery—reach $66.8 billion.
Structural issues include low investment rates, energy deficits, circular debt, and limited industrial competitiveness. Remittances contribute around 9.4% of GDP, and foreign reserves approximate $18.4 billion. IMF-supported reforms target fiscal consolidation and power-sector efficiency.

Energy, Infrastructure, and Natural Resources

Pakistan’s energy mix relies heavily on imported fossil fuels. Installed capacity exceeds 43 GW, with generation shares of 60% fossil fuels, 20% hydropower, and 14% nuclear energy. The Thar coalfield development and renewable projects in wind and solar are expanding under the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) framework.
Natural resources include natural gas, low-grade coal, iron ore, copper, and gypsum. However, domestic gas and oil production fall short of consumption, necessitating LNG and petroleum imports.

Communication, Transport, and Urban Centres

Telecommunication penetration is high, with 189 million mobile subscribers, though broadband access remains limited. Pakistan hosts a dynamic media environment, featuring PTV, Radio Pakistan, and a variety of private networks.
Transport infrastructure includes 117 airports, an 11,800 km railway network, and three major seaports—Karachi, Port Qasim, and Gwadar. Major urban centres include Karachi (17.2 million), Lahore (14 million), and Faisalabad (3.7 million), forming industrial and commercial hubs along the Indus corridor.

Defence, Security, and International Relations

The Pakistan Armed Forces comprise approximately 650,000 active personnel, with expenditure near 2.5% of GDP. The defence industry integrates imported Chinese systems with indigenous production. Pakistan contributes significantly to UN peacekeeping missions and maintains nuclear deterrence capabilities.
Security concerns include terrorism, border instability, and internal militancy. Active groups such as TTP, ISIS-K, LeT, and JeM continue to challenge state security, particularly in the northwest and Balochistan.
Pakistan’s foreign policy balances engagement with China, the United States, Gulf states, and regional organisations such as SAARC and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Its strategic partnership with China through CPEC aims to transform connectivity and energy infrastructure, while relations with India remain tense over territorial disputes.

Science, Space, and Future Prospects

The Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) oversees space science, satellite development, and research collaborations, notably with China. Projects such as PAKSAT satellites support communication and Earth observation.