Oslo Accords
The Oslo Accords were a series of agreements between the Government of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) aimed at establishing a framework for peace in the Middle East and addressing the long-standing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Signed in the 1990s, the accords represented the first direct, face-to-face agreement between the two parties and laid the foundation for Palestinian self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Despite raising hopes for a final peace settlement, the accords remain controversial and only partially implemented.
Background
The Israeli–Palestinian conflict traces its roots to the early twentieth century, marked by disputes over land, national identity, and sovereignty. Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and the creation of the State of Israel, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians became refugees. Israel later captured the West Bank and Gaza during the 1967 Six-Day War, intensifying disputes over occupied territories.
The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), founded in 1964, emerged as the principal representative of the Palestinian people. Initially advocating armed struggle, it gradually moved towards negotiation in the late 1980s, particularly after the First Intifada (1987–1993), a widespread Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation.
At the same time, international and regional changes, such as the end of the Cold War and the Gulf War of 1991, created conditions conducive to peace talks. The Madrid Conference (1991) opened formal negotiations between Israel, Palestinians, and neighbouring Arab states. Secret backchannel discussions in Norway eventually produced the Oslo Accords.
Oslo I Accord (1993)
The Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements (DOP), commonly known as Oslo I, was signed on 13 September 1993 at the White House in Washington, D.C., with US President Bill Clinton, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat in attendance.
Key provisions included:
- Mutual Recognition: Israel recognised the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people; the PLO recognised Israel’s right to exist and renounced terrorism.
- Palestinian Interim Self-Government: Establishment of the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza for a transitional period of five years.
- Withdrawal of Israeli Forces: Partial withdrawal of Israeli troops from Gaza and Jericho.
- Negotiations on Final Status Issues: Talks were to begin within five years to address Jerusalem, refugees, settlements, security, and borders.
The signing was symbolised by a historic handshake between Rabin and Arafat, marking a turning point in relations.
Oslo II Accord (1995)
The Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, or Oslo II, was signed on 28 September 1995 in Washington. It expanded on the first accord and further detailed arrangements for Palestinian self-rule.
Key features included:
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Division of the West Bank into Areas A, B, and C:
- Area A: Full Palestinian civil and security control (major Palestinian cities).
- Area B: Palestinian civil control with Israeli security oversight.
- Area C: Full Israeli control, covering settlements and strategic areas.
- Palestinian Elections: Provision for democratic elections, leading to Yasser Arafat becoming the first President of the Palestinian Authority.
- Security Cooperation: Mechanisms for joint Israeli–Palestinian security coordination.
- Further Withdrawals: Israeli redeployment from additional territories.
Oslo II aimed to build trust and create the framework for a final peace settlement.
Implementation and Challenges
The implementation of the Oslo Accords faced significant obstacles:
- Continued Violence: Suicide bombings, attacks, and military reprisals undermined trust.
- Expansion of Settlements: Israel continued to build and expand settlements in the West Bank, which Palestinians considered a violation of the accords.
- Political Opposition: Both Israeli and Palestinian factions opposed the agreements. The assassination of Prime Minister Rabin in 1995 by an Israeli extremist further destabilised the process.
- Unresolved Core Issues: Key questions—Jerusalem, refugees, borders, and settlements—remained unsettled, causing negotiations to stall.
Criticism
The accords have been subject to criticism from both sides:
- Palestinian Criticism: Many Palestinians argued that the accords legitimised Israeli occupation and failed to guarantee a sovereign state. The division of the West Bank and continued Israeli military presence led to disillusionment.
- Israeli Criticism: Critics in Israel claimed the accords compromised national security by empowering the PLO, which they accused of failing to prevent violence.
- International Concerns: Observers noted the lack of enforcement mechanisms and the ambiguity of provisions, which allowed both sides to interpret them differently.
Legacy and Significance
Despite their shortcomings, the Oslo Accords remain a landmark in the history of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict:
- They marked the first mutual recognition between Israel and the PLO.
- They established the Palestinian Authority, which continues to govern parts of the West Bank.
- They set the framework for future negotiations, including the Camp David Summit (2000) and subsequent peace initiatives.
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