Mongolia

Mongolia, a vast landlocked nation in Central Asia, lies between Russia to the north and China to the south, encompassing some of the world’s most dramatic landscapes—endless steppes, the Gobi Desert, and snow-capped mountains. Known for its nomadic heritage, historic empires, and strategic position between major powers, Mongolia remains both a land of ancient traditions and a young democracy navigating the challenges of globalisation. Once the centre of the largest contiguous empire in history under Genghis Khan, modern Mongolia has emerged from centuries of imperial domination and socialist governance to establish a semi-presidential republic with a market-based economy.

Historical Background

Mongolia’s early history is defined by the rise and fall of nomadic confederations that dominated the Eurasian steppe. The Xiongnu Empire (4th century B.C.), followed by the Rouran, Göktürks, and Uighurs, forged powerful steppe polities that influenced Chinese and Central Asian civilisations. By the 11th century A.D., the Mongol identity began to consolidate, culminating in the unification of the tribes under Temüjin, proclaimed Genghis Khan in 1206.
Genghis Khan’s leadership launched an era of conquest unprecedented in scale. By his death in 1227, the Mongol Empire spanned from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe, encompassing vast territories across Eurasia. His successors expanded the empire further—Ögedei Khan solidified Central Asian dominance, while Khubilai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty in China in the 1270s. The empire’s fragmentation in the 14th century gave rise to regional khanates, and Mongolia gradually declined in global prominence.
In the 17th century, Mongolia was incorporated into the Qing Dynasty, remaining under Manchu control for nearly 250 years. The collapse of the Qing in 1911 enabled Mongolia to declare independence, though full sovereignty came only after the 1921 revolution, supported by the Soviet Union. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed in 1924, adopting socialist governance under Soviet guidance.
The socialist era saw industrialisation, collectivisation, and political repression, particularly during the purges under Khorloogiin Choibalsan in the 1930s–1940s. Following the peaceful democratic revolution of 1990, Mongolia transitioned to multi-party democracy, adopting a new constitution in 1992. The Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP)—later renamed the Mongolian People’s Party (MPP)—and the Democratic Party (DP) have alternated in power.
In 2021, Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh of the MPP became president, while Gombojavyn Zandanshatar assumed the premiership in 2025, consolidating the MPP’s dominant position. Mongolia’s foreign policy continues its “Third Neighbour Policy,” balancing ties with China and Russia while fostering partnerships with Japan, South Korea, India, and the United States.

Geography and Environment

Covering 1,564,116 square kilometres, Mongolia is the 20th largest country in the world, yet one of the most sparsely populated. Its borders stretch 4,630 km with China and 3,452 km with Russia, but it has no coastline.
The country’s terrain is a striking mix of grassy steppes, mountain ranges, and deserts. The Altai Mountains dominate the west, the Gobi Desert spans the south, and fertile river valleys and lakes lie in the north. The highest peak, Khüiten (Nayramadlin Orgil), rises to 4,374 metres.
Mongolia experiences an extreme continental climate, with temperatures ranging from –40°C in winter to +40°C in summer. Natural hazards include zud (catastrophic winter conditions killing livestock), droughts, dust storms, and wildfires.
Natural resources: vast deposits of coal, copper, gold, oil, iron ore, and fluorspar, making mining central to the economy. About 72% of land is pastureland, while 9% is forested.
Environmental challenges include severe air pollution in Ulaanbaatar, deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification. The country actively participates in international environmental accords, including the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol.

People and Society

Mongolia’s population, estimated at 3.28 million (2024), is among the smallest in Asia but is growing slowly (0.78% per year). The urban population accounts for 69.1%, with Ulaanbaatar housing about 1.67 million people.
Ethnic composition:

• Khalkh Mongol: 83.8%
• Kazakhs, Durvuds, Bayads, Buriats, and others: 16.2%

Languages: Mongolian (Khalkha dialect) is official; Russian and Turkic languages are used regionally.
Religion: Buddhism (51.7%) is dominant, followed by Shamanism, Islam (mainly among Kazakhs), Christianity, and a large non-religious population (≈40%), reflecting Mongolia’s secularisation during socialism.
Social indicators:

• Life expectancy: 71.9 years (male 67.8; female 76.3)
• Infant mortality: 19.4 per 1,000 live births
• Maternal mortality: 41 per 100,000 live births
• Literacy rate: 98.7%
• Education spending: 3.7% of GDP
• Health expenditure: 6.9% of GDP

Urbanisation has brought economic opportunity but also widened rural-urban disparities, especially in access to water and healthcare. Traditional nomadic herding persists—around one-third of rural families still migrate seasonally with livestock, maintaining Mongolia’s pastoral legacy.

Government and Politics

Mongolia is a semi-presidential republic governed under the 1992 Constitution.

• President: Ukhnaagiin Khurelsukh (since 2021)
• Prime Minister: Gombojavyn Zandanshatar (since June 2025)
• Legislature: State Great Hural (Ulsiin Ih Hural) – unicameral, 126 members elected for four-year terms
• Judiciary: Supreme Court (general jurisdiction) and Constitutional Court (Tsets) for constitutional review

In the 2024 election, the Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) won 68 seats, followed by the Democratic Party (DP) with 42, and smaller parties holding the remainder. The president serves a single six-year term, while the prime minister, elected by parliament, manages domestic policy.
Mongolia’s democracy is widely regarded as one of the most stable in Asia, though corruption, resource governance, and patronage networks remain persistent issues.

Economy

Mongolia’s economy is resource-driven and highly dependent on mining, which constitutes over 90% of exports. Growth is vulnerable to commodity price fluctuations and Chinese demand, given that 92% of exports go to China.
Economic indicators (2024):

• GDP (PPP): $59.2 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $16,800
• Growth rate: 4.9%
• Inflation: 6.8%
• Unemployment: 5.5%
• Public debt: 67.6% of GDP

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture: 7.4%
• Industry: 38.1%
• Services: 44.2%

Major exports: coal, copper, gold, iron ore, and crude oilMajor imports: vehicles, machinery, refined fuels, and construction materialsForeign reserves: $5.5 billion (2024)
Trade partners:

• China: 92% of exports; 57% of imports
• Japan, Germany, Switzerland, USA: key secondary markets

The government’s priorities include diversifying the economy through renewable energy, transport infrastructure, and regional integration projects, including cooperation with Russia and China on rail, power, and logistics corridors.

Energy and Infrastructure

Mongolia’s electricity generation relies predominantly on coal (90%), with hydropower, solar, and wind supplying the remainder.

• Installed capacity: 1.51 million kW (2023)
• Electricity access: 100%
• Coal production: 64.8 million tonnes (2023)
• Energy consumption per capita: 67.1 million Btu/person

The Ulaanbaatar Railway, co-owned with Russia, remains the nation’s transport artery, linking to the Trans-Siberian and Chinese rail systems. Rural electrification and infrastructure modernisation are ongoing, particularly in western provinces.

Society, Culture, and Heritage

Mongolia’s culture embodies nomadism, Buddhism, and reverence for nature and horses. The annual Naadam Festival, celebrated each July, showcases the Three Manly Sports—wrestling, horse racing, and archery—symbolising endurance and national pride.
Traditional gers (yurts) remain common dwellings in both rural and peri-urban areas, blending ancient lifestyle with modern adaptation. The capital, Ulaanbaatar—meaning “Red Hero”—combines Soviet-era architecture with rapid urban expansion.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites (6):

• Uvs Nuur Basin
• Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape
• Petroglyphic Complexes of the Mongolian Altai
• Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain
• Landscapes of Dauria (shared site)
• Deer Stone Monuments and Bronze Age Sites

The Soyombo symbol, featured on the national flag, represents fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and balance, encapsulating Mongolian cosmology and independence.

Defence and International Relations

Mongolia’s armed forces comprise approximately 10,000–20,000 personnel, organised into land, air, cyber, and special operations units. Defence spending remains modest (0.7% of GDP), focusing on peacekeeping, border defence, and disaster relief. The country contributes over 800 peacekeepers to UN missions and hosts the annual “Khaan Quest” exercise with international partners.
Under its Third Neighbour Policy, Mongolia cultivates relations with democratic nations beyond its immediate neighbours, engaging closely with Japan, South Korea, India, and the United States. It holds observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and cooperates with NATO on training and peace operations.