Marshall Islands

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a Micronesian island nation situated in the central Pacific Ocean, approximately halfway between Hawaii and Australia. Comprising 29 atolls and five isolated islands, it encompasses over 1,000 islets dispersed across a vast maritime zone. Despite its small land area of only 181 square kilometres, the Marshall Islands’ exclusive economic zone spans millions of square kilometres of ocean, reflecting both its geographic expanse and strategic importance. The country’s cultural identity merges Micronesian and Polynesian traditions, while its modern statehood is defined by a unique post-colonial trajectory, the enduring legacy of nuclear testing, and a Compact of Free Association (COFA) with the United States that guarantees defence and economic support.

Historical Background

Human settlement in the Marshall Islands dates to around the first millennium B.C., when seafaring Austronesian peoples established communities across the atolls. The early Marshallese were exceptional navigators, using stick charts to map ocean currents and island positions, a sophisticated form of traditional maritime cartography. Society was organised under a dual chieftain system, dividing the islands into two historic chains—the Ratak (Sunrise) and Ralik (Sunset) groups—a structure that continues to shape cultural and political identity.
European contact began in 1592, when Spain claimed the islands, although Spanish influence remained nominal. In 1884, the German Empire purchased the islands and integrated them into its Pacific colonies, introducing copra production as an economic staple. Japan took control during World War I and, in 1920, received a League of Nations mandate to administer the islands as part of its South Seas Mandate.
The Second World War transformed the Marshall Islands into a key battleground in the Pacific. The United States captured Kwajalein and Enewetak Atolls in 1944, converting them into major military bases. After Japan’s surrender, the islands became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) under US administration in 1947, sanctioned by the United Nations.
Between 1946 and 1958, the United States conducted 67 nuclear tests on Bikini and Enewetak Atolls, displacing entire communities and contaminating surrounding islands with radioactive fallout. Residents of Rongelap and Utrik were also exposed, suffering lasting health and environmental consequences. Despite US compensation and resettlement efforts, Bikini and Rongelap remain uninhabitable, symbolising the human and ecological cost of Cold War experimentation.
The Marshall Islands adopted a constitution in 1979, achieving self-government within the TTPI, with Amata Kabua, a paramount chief, as the first president. Full sovereignty followed in 1986 through the Compact of Free Association (COFA), granting the RMI independence in domestic affairs while the United States retained responsibility for defence. The agreement also secured long-term financial assistance and migration privileges for Marshallese citizens. Subsequent leaders—including Kessai Note (2000), the first commoner president, and Hilda Heine (2016, re-elected 2023), the first woman head of state—have continued to strengthen democratic governance within a small parliamentary framework.

Geography and Environment

Located between 4° and 14° North latitude, the Marshall Islands stretch across the central Pacific in two nearly parallel island chains. The country’s 181 sq km of land contrasts sharply with its extensive EEZ, containing over 11,600 sq km of lagoons.
Key features include:

• Kwajalein Atoll – home to the world’s largest lagoon and the US Army Garrison–Kwajalein Atoll (USAG-KA) missile range.
• Majuro Atoll – the capital and principal population centre.
• Ebeye Island – one of the most densely populated islands in the Pacific.

The islands are low coral formations, rarely exceeding 14 metres above sea level. Their tropical marine climate is hot and humid year-round, with a wet season (May–November) and a drier season (December–April). Typhoons are uncommon but potentially devastating.
Natural resources include coconuts, marine products, and potential deep-sea minerals. Land use (2022) is 38.9% agricultural, 52.2% forested, and 2.8% arable. Environmental challenges include freshwater scarcity, coastal erosion, pollution of lagoons, and rising sea levels.
The Marshall Islands actively supports global environmental governance as a signatory to the Paris Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and multiple marine protection treaties.

People and Society

The population was estimated at 82,011 in 2024, with an annual growth rate of 1.26%. Urbanisation is high (78.9%), concentrated mainly on Majuro (≈31,000 residents) and Ebeye.
Ethnic composition:

• Marshallese: 95.6%
• Filipino: 1.1%
• Others: 3.3%

Languages: Marshallese and English are official. Marshallese is spoken by nearly all citizens, while English predominates in administration and education.
Religion: The majority (79.3%) are Protestant, mainly of the United Church of Christ, alongside Roman Catholic (9.3%), Latter-day Saints (5.7%), and other denominations.
Health and education indicators reflect both progress and vulnerability:

• Life expectancy: 75.2 years
• Infant mortality: 20.6 per 1,000 live births
• Fertility rate: 2.67 children per woman
• Maternal mortality: 155 per 100,000
• Obesity prevalence: 52.9% (among the world’s highest)
• Physician density: 0.47 per 1,000

Chronic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension dominate the health burden, driven by imported processed foods.
Education expenditure represents 7.5% of GDP (2022), with a school life expectancy of 14 years and near-universal literacy among younger generations. Migration under COFA provisions has led to a substantial diaspora in the United States, particularly in Arkansas, Hawaii, and Oregon.

Government and Politics

Official name: Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI)Government type: Mixed presidential–parliamentary systemConstitution effective: 1 May 1979Capital: Majuro
The political system integrates traditional authority with modern democratic institutions. The President, elected by the 33-member Nitijela (Parliament), serves as both head of state and government for a four-year term.

• President: Hilda C. Heine (since January 2023)
• Legislature: Unicameral Nitijela (33 seats)
• Advisory body: Council of Iroij (12 traditional chiefs)

The absence of formal political parties means politics often revolves around personal, familial, and clan affiliations. The judiciary blends US and English common law with customary law, headed by a Supreme Court and supported by High and Community Courts.
Suffrage is universal at 18 years, and administrative divisions correspond to 24 inhabited atolls and islands.

Economy

The Marshall Islands’ economy is small, open, and aid-dependent, dominated by services and sustained by US financial assistance, fishing licences, shipping registry fees, and remittances.

• GDP (2024): $280 million (nominal)
• GDP per capita (PPP): $7,200
• Growth rate: 2.8%
• Inflation: 6.2% (2022)
• Poverty rate: 7.2%

Sectoral composition (2023):

• Agriculture: 19.5%
• Industry: 11.1%
• Services: 70.5%

The US Compact of Free Association remains central to economic stability, providing direct grants and federal programme access. Fishing revenues—mainly from licensing foreign fleets—form a major income source, while shipping registration has emerged as a key industry, with over 4,000 vessels registered under the Marshallese flag, among the world’s largest open registries.
Trade (2023):

• Exports ($130 million): ships, refined petroleum, fish, natural gas
• Main partners: UK, Germany, Denmark, Ghana, Cyprus
• Imports ($206 million): petroleum products, machinery, foodstuffs
• Key suppliers: China (47%), Japan (15%)

The country uses the US dollar as its official currency, maintaining public debt around 41.6% of GDP.

Energy, Infrastructure, and Communications

Electricity access: 100% (2022)Energy production depends primarily on imported fossil fuels, though small solar power initiatives are expanding on outer islands.
Transport and infrastructure:

• Airports: 33, with Majuro International as the main gateway.
• Ports: Majuro, Kwajalein, and Enewetak.
• Communications: Mobile penetration ~38 per 100 people; internet access ~66% (2023).

Defence and Foreign Relations

The RMI has no standing military; defence and national security are the responsibility of the United States under COFA. The USAG-Kwajalein Atoll serves as a strategic missile testing and space tracking facility, providing employment and infrastructure benefits.
Through the “shiprider” programme, Marshallese officers join US Coast Guard missions to patrol fisheries and enforce maritime law.
The nation maintains active diplomacy through membership in the United Nations, Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), and the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), advocating for climate resilience and nuclear justice.

Culture and National Identity

Marshallese culture remains deeply communal and matrilineal, with land and lineage passing through female lines. Extended families, churches, and clan networks form the basis of social cohesion. Traditional music, canoe building, and dance endure as central cultural expressions, while Christianity and modern education coexist with customary authority.