Maratha Affairs (1773–1802)

The period between 1773 and 1802 was a critical phase in the history of the Maratha Confederacy, marked by intense internal rivalries, dynastic intrigues, and power struggles among various Maratha chiefs. It was also a time when the British East India Company exploited these divisions to expand its influence, leading to decisive military and political outcomes that ultimately undermined Maratha independence. This era witnessed the decline of the central authority of the Peshwas at Pune and the rise of semi-autonomous Maratha houses such as those of Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, and Gaekwad, culminating in the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805).

Background: The Maratha Confederacy after 1761

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) had been a major setback for the Marathas, with the loss of many leading chiefs and a severe blow to their power in northern India. However, within a decade, the Marathas managed to recover under the able leadership of Madhav Rao I (1761–1772), who re-established Maratha authority over much of western and central India.
Madhav Rao’s death in 1772, however, reopened the factional struggles within the Maratha polity. The unity and efficiency he had restored soon gave way to internal discord that dominated Maratha affairs from 1773 to 1802.

The Early Crisis: Narayan Rao’s Murder (1773)

After Madhav Rao’s death, his younger brother Narayan Rao succeeded as the Peshwa. However, real power lay with his uncle Raghunath Rao (Raghoba), whose ambition to become Peshwa led to bitter rivalry.
In 1773, Narayan Rao was murdered in his palace at Shaniwarwada, Pune, under mysterious circumstances, reportedly with the connivance of Raghunath Rao. This incident plunged the Maratha state into chaos and sparked a succession crisis.
Narayan Rao’s widow, Gangabai, soon gave birth to a posthumous son, Madhav Rao II (Madhav Narayan). The infant was declared Peshwa, and the government was placed under a regency council of leading Maratha nobles known as the Barbhai Council (Council of Twelve).

The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)

Raghunath Rao, unwilling to accept the regency’s decision, sought British support to claim the Peshwaship. In 1775, he signed the Treaty of Surat with the British East India Company, ceding Salsette and Bassein to the British in return for military assistance.
This alliance led to the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782), the first major confrontation between the Marathas and the British.

• The Barbhai Council, under the leadership of Nana Phadnavis, organised strong resistance and rallied the major Maratha chiefs — including Mahadji Scindia and Tukoji Holkar — against Raghunath Rao and the British.
• After initial British successes, the war dragged on inconclusively due to poor coordination among British forces.
• The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), which recognised Madhav Rao II as the legitimate Peshwa, restored peace between the two powers, and promised mutual non-interference in each other’s territories.

The treaty ensured two decades of relative peace between the British and the Marathas, allowing both sides to consolidate their respective positions.

The Role of Nana Phadnavis

Nana Phadnavis, the chief minister and regent during Madhav Rao II’s minority, became the most influential statesman in the Maratha Confederacy between 1773 and 1796.
His main achievements included:

• Restoring administrative stability in Pune after the crisis of 1773.
• Balancing the rival ambitions of the powerful Maratha houses — Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Bhonsle of Nagpur, and Gaekwad of Baroda — through careful diplomacy.
• Maintaining a delicate equilibrium between the Marathas and the British.

Although shrewd and capable, Nana Phadnavis’s policy of playing rival chiefs against each other prevented the emergence of a unified Maratha front, which later proved disastrous.

Rise of the Maratha Chiefs

During this period, the Maratha Confederacy effectively functioned as a loose federation of powerful chieftains, each controlling semi-independent territories.

1. Mahadji Scindia (Ruler of Gwalior):
   • The most powerful Maratha leader in northern India.
   • Reorganised his army along European lines with the help of French officers such as Benoît de Boigne.
   • Recovered Delhi (1788) and restored Shah Alam II to the Mughal throne under Maratha protection, gaining de facto control over the Mughal Empire.
   • Played a key role in establishing Maratha supremacy in north India until his death in 1794.
2. Tukoji Holkar and Ahilyabai Holkar (Rulers of Indore):
   • Maintained strong control over Malwa and parts of Central India.
   • Ahilyabai Holkar (r. 1767–1795) was renowned for her good governance, temple restorations, and public works.
3. Bhonsle of Nagpur:
   • Ruled Berar and parts of central India, often pursuing independent policies and resisting central control from Pune.
4. Gaekwad of Baroda:
   • Controlled Gujarat, maintaining semi-autonomous relations with the Peshwa.

These chiefs frequently pursued conflicting ambitions, undermining Maratha unity and weakening collective resistance to foreign powers.

The Crisis after Madhav Rao II’s Death (1796)

The death of Madhav Rao II in 1796 created another political vacuum in Pune. Two rival claimants to the Peshwaship emerged:

• Baji Rao II, the son of Raghunath Rao, supported by Nana Phadnavis.
• Daulat Rao Scindia, successor of Mahadji Scindia, who sought to dominate the Peshwa’s office.

The rivalry between Nana Phadnavis and Scindia plunged the Maratha state into turmoil. The Holkars, under Yashwantrao Holkar, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur also interfered in Pune politics, leading to violent confrontations.

The Fall of Pune and the Rise of Baji Rao II

In 1802, a civil war broke out between Daulat Rao Scindia and Yashwantrao Holkar, culminating in the Battle of Poona (October 1802). Holkar defeated the combined forces of the Peshwa and Scindia and captured Pune.
Baji Rao II fled to Bassein (Vasai) and sought British protection.

The Treaty of Bassein (1802)

In December 1802, Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British East India Company, a landmark event that changed the course of Maratha and Indian history.
Terms of the treaty:

• The Peshwa agreed to accept British subsidiary forces within his territory.
• He was to cede territories sufficient to maintain the British troops.
• He could not engage in diplomacy or warfare without British approval.

The treaty effectively placed the Peshwa under British protection, reducing him to a dependent ruler and marking the beginning of British dominance over the Maratha Confederacy.

Reaction of Other Maratha Chiefs

The Treaty of Bassein was viewed by other Maratha leaders as an act of betrayal and humiliation. Scindia, Holkar, and Bhonsle rejected it and attempted to form a coalition to oppose British interference.
Their resistance led to the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), which ended in defeat for the Marathas and further strengthened British control.

Significance of the Period (1773–1802)

The period from 1773 to 1802 represents the transition of the Maratha Confederacy from resurgence to decline:

1. Internal Disunity: The Maratha polity fragmented into competing centres of power, each pursuing personal ambition rather than collective interest.
2. Rise of British Power: The British exploited Maratha rivalries through diplomacy and the policy of subsidiary alliances.
3. End of Independence: The Treaty of Bassein symbolised the political subordination of the Marathas to British authority.
4. Administrative and Military Weakness: Despite strong leaders like Nana Phadnavis and Mahadji Scindia, the lack of a unified military and political strategy led to their downfall.