16 Mahajanapada and their capitals

Around sixth century BC, the territories of sixteen Mahajanapadas got clearly marked. These included Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vriji, Malla, Chedi or Cheti, Vamsa or Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha or Matsya, Surasena, Assaka or Ashmaka , Avanti, Gandhara & Kamboja. The names of at least 9 among them are given in the Vedic Literature. Panini in the 4^th century BC mentions as many as 22 different Janpadas, but also mentions 3 most important viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa.

Evolution of Mahajanapadas

The society in Vedic period was rural, where smallest political unit was a Vis. However, some later Vedic texts detail about the Janpadas such as Kuru, Panchala, Matysa, Kunti, Kikata, Jayminia, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Kamboja etc. The rise of Janpadas is mainly attributed to the establishment of settled agriculture communities. The development of an agriculture based economy led to increase in crops and cattle wealth coupled with use of iron in technology. The society was now totally divided into 4 Varna. Based upon occupation, new labour class and landed classes emerged. The landed class was known as Gahapatis. The trade flourished and the towns, which were either located on trade routes such as Mathura or located, near the banks of rivers such as Magadha developed. This transition also saw an emergence of taxing, standing army, territorial powers etc.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas are as follows:

Kasi

Kasi is ancient Iron Age kingdom belonging to Bharata clan. In later Iron Age, Kāśī was a powerful state with imperial ambitions, its capital Vārāṇasī being the largest city in South Asia. Kāśī frequently clashed with neighbouring kingdoms, annexing Kosala and subjugating Aṅga, Magadha, and others. It was eventually conquered by Kosala under King Kaṃsa before Buddha’s time and later became part of Magadha’s empire after Ajātasattu annexed Kosala.

Kosala

Its capital was Shravasti. It was located in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It covers today’s districts Faizabad, Gonda, Bhahraich etc. and was bordered by River Gomti on the west, River Sadaniva in the east, Nepal hills in the north and River Syandika in the South. It was ruled in Iron Age by Ikshvaku dynasty with Ayodhya its capital. During Mahajanapada era, Shravasti served as its capital.  Kosala encompassed tribes like the Shakyans, Mallakas, Koliyas, Kālāmas, and Moriyas, roughly corresponding to modern Awadh.

Politically, Kosala expanded under King Mahakosala and Pasenadi, annexing Kashi and adjoining republics. But then, Kosala was absorbed by Magadha in the 5th century BC.

Anga

Anga was located around Bhagalpur, Munger area of Bihar between Champa river and Rajmahal hills. Its capital was Champa (modern Bhagalpur).  It was later annexed to Magadha by Bimbisar.

Magadha

The initial capital of Magadha was Girivraja or Rajgriha. It covered the modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Shahabad of Bihar. It was bordered by River Son non North and Ganga on South. Magadha was culturally distinct from Vedic kingdoms, forming “Greater Magadha,” where Kshatriyas ranked above Brahmins and Vedic rituals were rejected. It was the center of the Śramaṇic movements, giving rise to Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika, with royal patronage from rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of the Haryanka dynasty. The Puranas cite the Brihadratha dynasty as Magadha’s first rulers. Magadhi Prakrit, spoken here, evolved into languages like Magahi and Maithili; Pali, the Buddhist canonical language, is linked to Magadhi.

Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) served as the early capital, but later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra. 

Vajji or Vriji

During Iron age, Vajji was a gaṇasaṅgha (aristocratic oligarchic republic) of 8 smaller clans (Athakula) with capital at Vaishalī and was most powerful tribe within Vajjika league.  Tensions with Magadha escalated under King Ajātasattu. Ajātasattu defeated and annexed the Vajjika League by 468 BCE, ending Vajji’s republican polity. The Vajjika League’s territory was later known as “Vṛji janapada.”

Malla

During iron age, it was a ganasangha with two capitals at Kusinara and Pava; and it was part of Vajjika League.  It covered the modern districts of Kushinagar, Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh.

The two Malla republics maintained sovereignty within the Vajjika League and had uncordial relations. The Buddha spent his final days in Kusinārā, and after his death, both Malla republics claimed and enshrined his relics. They fought alongside the Vajjika League against Magadha under Ajātasattu, who defeated and annexed them by 468 BCE, ending their republican status but allowing limited autonomy under Mauryan rule.

Chedi or Cheti

Cedī was located in central India corresponding to eastern Bundelkhaṇḍ. Its neighbors included Matsya, Kāsī, Kāruṣas, and Daśārṇas. The capital, Sotthivatī (Śuktimatī), was situated by a river of the same name; its exact location is uncertain but proposed sites include near Banda, Uttar Pradesh, and Itaha near Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.

Vatsa

Vatsa was located south of the Ganga with its capital at Kauśāmbī on the Yamuna river. It was a branch of the Kuru dynasty; after the flood destruction of Hastinapura, King Nicakṣu shifted the capital to Kauśāmbī. The Vatsas controlled the Lower Doab, while the Kurus held the Upper Doab and Haryana/Delhi. Vatsa was divided into two branches at Mathura and Kauśāmbī.

Kuru

Its capital was Indraprastha / Hastinapur / Isukara. Kuru was the first recorded state-level society in the Indian subcontinent during the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–900 BCE), formed by the alliance of Bharata and Puru tribes after the Battle of Ten Kings. The Kuru territory was divided into Kuru-jaṅgala (forest), Kuru territory proper, and Kuru-kṣetra (region), covering parts of modern Haryana, Delhi, and western Uttar Pradesh. Major rivers in the Kuru kingdom included the Sarasvatī, Gaṅgā, Aruṇā, Aṃśumatī, Hiraṇvatī, Āpayā, Kauśikī, and Dṛṣadvatī.

Panchala

Panchala was located in Ganga-Yamuna Doab in Kanyakubja (Kannauj). It originated from a fusion of five tribes (Krivis, Turvashas, Keshins, Srinjayas, Somakas) and was initially monarchical before becoming an oligarchic confederacy; and later a Mahajanapada. Its capitals were Ahichhtra (Northern Panchal) and Kampilya (Southern Panchala). It covered modern day northern Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand. The last independent ruler, Achyuta, was defeated by Samudragupta, leading to Panchala’s incorporation into the Gupta Empire.

Matsya

Matsya was located in northeastern Rajasthan (Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur districts) with Virāṭanagara (modern Bairāṭ) as its capital.  The name Matsya/Macchā means “fish” in Sanskrit and Pāli. It bordered the Sarasvatī river to the west and hills near the Chambal River to the south, neighboring Kuru and Sūrasena states. Unlike many contemporaries, Matsya retained a monarchical system rather than shifting to a republican form.

Surasena

Surasena was located on the Yamuna river with Mathura as its capital. It was inhabited by the Vrishnis and Andhakas, branches of the Yadu tribe, claiming descent from the Rigvedic Yadus. Ancient Greek writers like Megasthenes referred to Surasena as Sourasenoi, mentioning cities Methora (Mathura) and Cleisobora (Krishnapura). Buddhist texts mention King Avantiputta of Surasena during Gautama Buddha’s time. It was located on the junction of Uttarpatha and Dakshinpatha around Mathura of Today.

Asamka / Assaka

Aśmaka (Assaka) was the only southern Mahajanapada among the sixteen Mahajanapadas located along the Godavari River in present-day Telangana, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. Its capital, known as Podana, Potali, Paudanyapura, or Potana, is identified with modern Bodhan in Telangana or Paithan in Maharashtra. Aśmaka existed during the time of the Brāhmaṇas and was mentioned by Panini (7th century BCE) as a Deccan kingdom watered by the Godavari. It annexed the small kingdom of Mūlaka, becoming Avanti’s southern neighbor. Aśmaka was known for its wealth, abundance of food and gems, and is referenced in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya and Sutta Nipata.

Avanti

Avanti Mahajanapada was located in present-day Malwa, divided by the Vindhyas into northern (capital Ujjayini) and southern (capital Mahishmati) parts.

The Haihayas, a confederation of five clans including Vitihotras, initially ruled Avanti from Mahishmati. Pradyota, a Vitihotra ruler contemporary to Buddha, was known for wars against Vatsa and Takshashila and had a Buddhist queen who built a stupa in Ujjayini. Palaka, his successor, was overthrown by a revolt placing Aryaka on the throne. Avanti became a western province (Avantirāṭṭha) under the Nanda and Maurya empires, with Ashoka serving as its governor.

Gandhara

Gandhāra was located in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, with key cities including Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Takshasila (Taxila), and Purushapura (Peshawar). Gandhara later became part of the Maurya Empire, with Taxila as a major educational center where Chanakya tutored Chandragupta Maurya. Successive rule included Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, and the Kushan Empire, under which Gandhara reached its cultural zenith (1st–5th century CE), noted for Greco-Buddhist art and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism.

Kamboja

Its capital Rajpur. It was located around Hndukush mountains of Kashmir.

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